The Basics of Social Research (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

by Babbie, Earl R.

• ISBN13: 9780534630362
• ISBN10: 0534630367
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2004-02-20
• Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing

Summary

Preface. Prologue. Part One: AN INTRODUCTION TO INQUIRY. 1. Human Inquiry and Science. 2. Paradigms, Theory, and Research. 3. The Ethics and Politics of Social Research. Part Two: THE STRUCTURING OF INQUIRY. 4. Research Design. 5. Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement. 6. Indexes, Scales, and Typologies. 7. The Logic of Sampling. Part Three: MODES OF OBSERVATION. 8. Experiments. 9. Survey Research. 10. Qualitative Field Research. 11. Unobtrusive Research. 12. Evaluation Research. Part Four: ANALYSIS OF DATA. 13. Qualitative Data Analysis. 14. Quantitative Data Analysis. 15. Reading and Writing Social Research. Glossary. Bibliography. Index.

Table of Contents

Preface	xix
Part One AN INTRODUCTION TO INQUIRY	1	(83)
Human Inquiry and Science	3	(27)
An Opening Quandary	4	(1)
Introduction	4	(2)
Looking for Reality	6	(5)
Ordinary Human Inquiry	6	(1)
Tradition	7	(1)
Authority	7	(1)
Errors in Inquiry and Some Solutions	7	(2)
What's Really Real?	9	(2)
The Foundations of Social Science	11	(8)
Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief	12	(1)
Social Regularities	12	(2)
Aggregates, Not Individuals	14	(1)
A Variable Language	15	(4)
Some Dialectics of Social Research	19	(7)
Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation	19	(3)
Inductive and Deductive Theory	22	(1)
Quantitative and Qualitative Data	23	(2)
Pure and Applied Research	25	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	26	(1)
Main Points	27	(1)
Key Terms	28	(1)
Review Questions	28	(1)
Additional Readings	28	(1)
Multimedia Resources	28	(2)
Paradigms, Theory, and Research	30	(29)
An Opening Quandary	31	(1)
Introduction	31	(1)
Some Social Science Paradigms	32	(10)
Macrotheory and Microtheory	34	(1)
Early Positivism	34	(1)
Conflict Paradigm	35	(1)
Symbolic Interactionism	35	(1)
Ethnomethodology	36	(1)
Structural Functionalism	37	(1)
Feminist Paradigms	38	(1)
Rational Objectivity Reconsidered	39	(3)
Two Logical Systems Revisited	42	(8)
The Traditional Model of Science	42	(2)
Deduction and Induction Compared	44	(6)
Deductive Theory Construction	50	(3)
Getting Started	50	(1)
Constructing Your Theory	51	(1)
An Example of Deductive Theory: Distributive Justice	51	(2)
Inductive Theory Construction	53	(1)
An Example of Inductive Theory: Why Do People Smoke Marijuana?	53	(1)
The Links between Theory and Research	54	(1)
The Importance of Theory in the ``Real World''	55	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	56	(1)
Main Points	56	(1)
Key Terms	57	(1)
Review Questions	57	(1)
Additional Readings	57	(1)
Multimedia Resources	58	(1)
The Ethics and Politics of Social Research	59	(25)
An Opening Quandary	60	(1)
Introduction	60	(1)
Ethical Issues in Social Research	61	(11)
Voluntary Participation	62	(1)
No Harm to the Participants	63	(1)
Anonymity and Confidentiality	64	(3)
Deception	67	(1)
Analysis and Reporting	68	(1)
Institutional Review Boards	69	(2)
Professional Codes of Ethics	71	(1)
Two Ethical Controversies	72	(3)
Trouble in the Tearoom	72	(2)
Observing Human Obedience	74	(1)
The Politics of Social Research	75	(5)
Objectivity and Ideology	76	(3)
Politics with a Little ``p''	79	(1)
Politics in Perspective	80	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	80	(1)
Main Points	81	(1)
Key Terms	82	(1)
Review Questions	82	(1)
Additional Readings	83	(1)
Multimedia Resources	83	(1)
Part Two THE STRUCTURING OF INQUIRY	84	(141)
Research Design	86	(34)
Introduction	87	(1)
An Opening Quandary	88	(1)
Three Purposes of Research	88	(4)
Exploration	89	(2)
Description	91	(1)
Explanation	91	(1)
The Logic of Nomothetic Explanation	92	(2)
Criteria for Nomothetic Causality	92	(2)
False Criteria for Nomothetic Causality	94	(1)
Necessary and Sufficient Causes	94	(1)
Units of Analysis	95	(9)
Individuals	97	(1)
Groups	98	(1)
Organizations	98	(1)
Social Interactions	98	(1)
Social Artifacts	99	(3)
Units of Analysis in Review	102	(1)
Faulty Reasoning about Units of Analysis: The Ecological Fallacy and Reductionism	102	(2)
The Time Dimension	104	(5)
Cross-Sectional Studies	104	(1)
Longitudinal Studies	105	(2)
Approximating Longitudinal Studies	107	(1)
Examples of Research Strategies	108	(1)
How to Design a Research Project	109	(6)
Getting Started	111	(1)
Conceptualization	111	(1)
Choice of Research Method	112	(1)
Operationalization	112	(1)
Population and Sampling	112	(1)
Observations	113	(1)
Data Processing	113	(1)
Analysis	113	(1)
Application	114	(1)
Research Design in Review	114	(1)
The Research Proposal	115	(1)
Elements of a Research Proposal	115	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	116	(1)
Main Points	117	(1)
Key Terms	118	(1)
Review Questions	118	(1)
Additional Readings	119	(1)
Multimedia Resources	119	(1)
Answers to Units of Analysis Quiz, Review Questions #2	119	(1)
Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement	120	(34)
An Opening Quandary	121	(1)
Introduction	121	(1)
Measuring Anything That Exists	122	(3)
Conceptions, Concepts, and Reality	122	(2)
Conceptions as Constructs	124	(1)
Conceptualization	125	(7)
Indicators and Dimensions	125	(3)
The Interchangeability of Indicators	128	(1)
Real, Nominal, and Operational Definitions	128	(1)
Creating Conceptual Order	129	(1)
An Example of Conceptualization: The Concept of Anomie	130	(2)
Definitions in Descriptive and Explanatory Studies	132	(3)
Operationalization Choices	135	(9)
Range of Variation	135	(1)
Variations between the Extremes	136	(1)
A Note on Dimensions	137	(1)
Defining Variables and Attributes	137	(1)
Levels of Measurement	138	(4)
Single or Multiple Indicators	142	(1)
Some Illustrations of Operationalization Choices	143	(1)
Operationalization Goes On and On	144	(1)
Criteria of Measurement Quality	144	(6)
Precision and Accuracy	144	(1)
Reliability	145	(3)
Validity	148	(2)
Who Decides What's Valid?	150	(1)
Tension between Reliability and Validity	150	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	150	(1)
Main Points	151	(1)
Key Terms	152	(1)
Review Questions	152	(1)
Additional Readings	152	(1)
Multimedia Resources	153	(1)
Indexes, Scales, and Typologies	154	(29)
An Opening Quandary	155	(1)
Introduction	155	(4)
Indexes versus Scales	156	(3)
Index Construction	159	(13)
Item Selection	159	(1)
Examination of Empirical Relationships	160	(5)
Index Scoring	165	(2)
Handling Missing Data	167	(1)
Index Validation	168	(3)
The Status of Women: An Illustration of Index Construction	171	(1)
Scale Construction	172	(7)
Bogardus Social Distance Scale	172	(1)
Thurstone Scale	173	(1)
Likert Scale	174	(1)
Semantic Differential	175	(1)
Guttman Scale	175	(4)
Typologies	179	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	179	(1)
Main Points	180	(1)
Key Terms	181	(1)
Review Questions	181	(1)
Additional Readings	181	(1)
Multimedia Resources	182	(1)
The Logic of Sampling	183	(42)
An Opening Quandary	184	(1)
Introduction	184	(2)
A Brief History of Sampling	186	(2)
President Alf Landon	186	(1)
President Thomas E. Dewey	187	(1)
Two Types of Sampling Methods	188	(1)
Nonprobability Sampling	188	(4)
Reliance on Available Subjects	188	(1)
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling	189	(1)
Snowball Sampling	190	(1)
Quota Sampling	190	(1)
Selecting Informants	191	(1)
The Theory and Logic of Probability Sampling	192	(14)
Conscious and Unconscious Sampling Bias	193	(2)
Representativeness and Probability of Selection	195	(1)
Random Selection	196	(1)
Probability Theory, Sampling Distributions, and Estimates of Sample Error	197	(9)
Populations and Sampling Frames	206	(2)
Review of Populations and Sampling Frames	208	(1)
Types of Sampling Designs	208	(7)
Simple Random Sampling	208	(2)
Systematic Sampling	210	(2)
Stratified Sampling	212	(1)
Implicit Stratification in Systematic Sampling	213	(1)
Illustration: Sampling University Students	214	(1)
Multistage Cluster Sampling	215	(7)
Multistage Designs and Sampling Error	217	(2)
Stratification in Multistage Cluster Sampling	219	(1)
Probability Proportionate to Size (PPS) Sampling	219	(1)
Disproportionate Sampling and Weighting	220	(2)
Probability Sampling in Review	222	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	222	(1)
Main Points	222	(1)
Key Terms	223	(1)
Review Questions	223	(1)
Additional Readings	224	(1)
Multimedia Resources	224	(1)
Part Three MODES OF OBSERVATION	225	(159)
Experiments	227	(23)
An Opening Quandary	228	(1)
Introduction	228	(1)
Topics Appropriate to Experiments	229	(1)
The Classical Experiment	229	(4)
Independent and Dependent Variables	230	(1)
Pretesting and Posttesting	230	(1)
Experimental and Control Groups	231	(1)
The Double-Blind Experiment	232	(1)
Selecting Subjects	233	(3)
Probability Sampling	233	(1)
Randomization	234	(1)
Matching	234	(1)
Matching or Randomization?	235	(1)
Variations on Experimental Design	236	(6)
Preexperimental Research Designs	236	(2)
Validity Issues in Experimental Research	238	(4)
An Illustration of Experimentation	242	(3)
Web-Based Experiments	245	(1)
``Natural'' Experiments	245	(2)
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Experimental Method	247	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	247	(1)
Main Points	248	(1)
Key Terms	248	(1)
Review Questions	248	(1)
Additional Readings	249	(1)
Multimedia Resources	249	(1)
Survey Research	250	(43)
An Opening Quandary	251	(1)
Introduction	252	(1)
Topics Appropriate for Survey Research	252	(1)
Guidelines for Asking Questions	253	(7)
Choose Appropriate Question Forms	254	(1)
Make Items Clear	255	(1)
Avoid Double-Barreled Questions	255	(1)
Respondents Must Be Competent to Answer	255	(2)
Respondents Must Be Willing to Answer	257	(1)
Questions Should Be Relevant	257	(1)
Short Items Are Best	258	(1)
Avoid Negative Items	258	(1)
Avoid Biased Items and Terms	258	(2)
Questionnaire Construction	260	(6)
General Questionnaire Format	260	(1)
Formats for Respondents	260	(1)
Contingency Questions	261	(1)
Matrix Questions	262	(1)
Ordering Items in a Questionnaire	263	(1)
Questionnaire Instructions	264	(1)
Pretesting the Questionnaire	265	(1)
A Sample Questionnaire	266	(1)
Self-Administered Questionnaires	266	(8)
Mail Distribution and Return	266	(4)
Monitoring Returns	270	(1)
Follow-up Mailings	271	(1)
Acceptable Response Rates	271	(1)
A Case Study	272	(2)
Interview Surveys	274	(4)
The Role of the Survey Interviewer	274	(1)
General Guidelines for Survey Interviewing	275	(2)
Coordination and Control	277	(1)
Telephone Surveys	278	(2)
Positive and Negative Factors	278	(2)
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI)	280	(1)
New Technologies and Survey Research	280	(3)
Comparison of the Different Survey Methods	283	(1)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research	284	(2)
Secondary Analysis	286	(2)
A Quandary Revisited	288	(1)
Main Points	289	(1)
Key Terms	290	(1)
Review Questions	290	(1)
Additional Readings	290	(2)
Multimedia Resources	292	(1)
Qualitative Field Research	293	(33)
An Opening Quandary	294	(1)
Introduction	294	(1)
Topics Appropriate to Field Research	295	(3)
Special Considerations in Qualitative Field Research	298	(4)
The Various Roles of the Observer	298	(2)
Relations to Subjects	300	(2)
Some Qualitative Field Research Paradigms	302	(10)
Naturalism	302	(1)
Ethnomethodology	303	(1)
Grounded Theory	304	(2)
Case Studies and the Extended Case Method	306	(2)
Institutional Ethnography	308	(1)
Participatory Action Research	309	(3)
Conducting Qualitative Field Research	312	(8)
Preparing for the Field	312	(1)
Qualitative Interviewing	313	(3)
Focus Groups	316	(2)
Recording Observations	318	(2)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Field Research	320	(2)
Validity	321	(1)
Reliability	322	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	322	(1)
Research Ethics in Qualitative Field Research	323	(1)
Main Points	323	(1)
Key Terms	324	(1)
Review Questions	324	(1)
Additional Readings	324	(1)
Multimedia Resources	325	(1)
Unobtrusive Research	326	(31)
An Opening Quandary	327	(1)
Introduction	327	(1)
Content Analysis	328	(11)
Topics Appropriate to Content Analysis	328	(1)
Sampling in Content Analysis	329	(4)
Coding in Content Analysis	333	(4)
An Illustration of Content Analysis	337	(1)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Content Analysis	338	(1)
Analyzing Existing Statistics	339	(7)
Durkheim's Study of Suicide	339	(2)
Consequences of Globalization	341	(1)
Units of Analysis	342	(1)
Problems of Validity	342	(1)
Problems of Reliability	343	(1)
Sources of Existing Statistics	343	(3)
Comparative and Historical Research	346	(8)
Examples of Comparative and Historical Research	347	(3)
Sources of Comparative and Historical Data	350	(1)
Analytical Techniques	351	(3)
A Quandary Revisited	354	(1)
Main Points	354	(1)
Key Terms	355	(1)
Review Questions	355	(1)
Additional Readings	355	(1)
Multimedia Resources	356	(1)
Evaluation Research	357	(27)
An Opening Quandary	358	(1)
Introduction	358	(2)
Topics Appropriate to Evaluation Research	360	(1)
Formulating the Problem: Issues of Measurement	361	(4)
Specifying Outcomes	362	(1)
Measuring Experimental Contexts	363	(1)
Specifying Interventions	363	(1)
Specifying the Population	363	(1)
New versus Existing Measures	364	(1)
Operationalizing Success/Failure	364	(1)
Types of Evaluation Research Designs	365	(14)
Experimental Designs	365	(1)
Quasi-Experimental Designs	366	(4)
Qualitative Evaluations	370	(1)
Logistical Problems	371	(2)
Some Ethical Issues	373	(1)
Use of Research Results	374	(5)
Social Indicators Research	379	(2)
The Death Penalty and Deterrence	380	(1)
Computer Simulation	381	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	381	(1)
Main Points	382	(1)
Key Terms	382	(1)
Review Questions	382	(1)
Additional Readings	383	(1)
Multimedia Resources	383	(1)
Part Four ANALYSIS OF DATA	384	(96)
Qualitative Data Analysis	386	(27)
An Opening Quandary	387	(1)
Introduction	387	(1)
Linking Theory and Analysis	388	(5)
Discovering Patterns	388	(1)
Grounded Theory Method	389	(2)
Semiotics	391	(2)
Conversation Analysis	393	(1)
Qualitative Data Processing	393	(6)
Coding	393	(4)
Memoing	397	(1)
Concept Mapping	398	(1)
Computer Programs for Qualitative Data	399	(10)
Leviticus as Seen through HyperResearch	400	(2)
Using NVivo to Understand Women Film Directors, by Sandrine Zerbib	402	(7)
The Qualitative Analysis of Quantitative Data	409	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	410	(1)
Main Points	410	(1)
Key Terms	411	(1)
Review Questions	411	(1)
Additional Readings	411	(1)
Multimedia Resources	412	(1)
Quantitative Data Analysis	413	(28)
An Opening Quandary	414	(1)
Introduction	414	(1)
Quantification of Data	415	(5)
Developing Code Categories	416	(2)
Codebook Construction	418	(1)
Data Entry	419	(1)
Univariate Analysis	420	(6)
Distributions	420	(1)
Central Tendency	421	(3)
Dispersion	424	(1)
Continuous and Discrete Variables	425	(1)
Detail versus Manageability	426	(1)
Subgroup Comparisons	426	(3)
``Collapsing'' Response Categories	426	(2)
Handling ``Don't Knows''	428	(1)
Numerical Descriptions in Qualitative Research	429	(1)
Bivariate Analysis	429	(6)
Percentaging a Table	431	(3)
Constructing and Reading Bivariate Tables	434	(1)
Introduction to Multivariate Analysis	435	(1)
Sociological Diagnostics	436	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	437	(2)
Main Points	439	(1)
Key Terms	439	(1)
Review Questions	439	(1)
Additional Readings	440	(1)
Multimedia Resources	440	(1)
Reading and Writing Social Research	441	(39)
An Opening Quandary	442	(1)
Introduction	442	(1)
Reading Social Research	442	(6)
Journals versus Books	442	(2)
Evaluation of Research Reports	444	(4)
Using the Internet Wisely	448	(7)
Some Useful Web Sites	448	(1)
Searching the Web	449	(1)
Evaluating the Quality of Internet Materials	450	(4)
Citing Internet Materials	454	(1)
Writing Social Research	455	(5)
Some Basic Considerations	455	(2)
Organization of the Report	457	(3)
Guidelines for Reporting Analyses	460	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	460	(1)
Main Points	461	(1)
Key Terms	462	(1)
Review Questions	462	(1)
Additional Readings	462	(1)
Multimedia Resources	463	(3)
Appendixes
A Using the Library	466	(8)
B Random Numbers	474	(2)
C Distribution of Chi Square	476	(2)
D Normal Curve Areas	478	(1)
E Estimated Sampling Error	479	(1)
Glossary	480	(11)
Bibliography	491	(12)
Index	503	(16)
Photo Credits	519