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Forty-three Americans have held the job of President of the United States. Each has a story, be it one of vision, accomplishment, conflict, scandal, triumph, or tragedy. And each story is at the center of the national story, a part of what we all experience. History buffs find endless fascination – and a greater understanding of America today – in the colorful personalities and momentous events that surround the Oval Office.

If you want the complete take on U. S. presidents, from George Washington to George W. Bush, you’ll appreciate U. S. Presidents for Dummies. Written in a lively style by a history professor at the University of Texas, this fun guidebook of chief executives is packed with information, factoids, and memorable quotes. Inside, you’ll find out which president:

• Promised to only serve one term, and kept his word!
• Was a great person but a rotten president
• Campaigned on nothing but image – in the n ineteenth century!
• May be the most underrated president in history
• Had his own distributor bringing liquor to the White House – during Prohibition!
• Appointed the first female cabinet member
• Pushed through the first civil rights legislation after the end of the Civil War
• Said of himself, “I am a man of limited talents from a small town. I don’t seem to grasp that I am president”

U. S. Presidents for Dummies offers a wealth of knowledge on what it takes to be the leader of the free world, and who has stepped up to the challenge. Dividing the ranks of presidents into chronological groups for a broader, historical understanding of the office, this book discusses:

• The birth and evolution of the presidency
• Ineffective presidents
• Forgettable presidents
• Working up to the Civil War
• Reconstruction presidents
• Becoming a force in the world
• Instituting the Imperial Presidency
• Today’s changing dynamics and the Presidency

A treasury of information, this book features an easy-to-comprehend style and sharp historical analysis. Sidebars, photos, timelines, and best and worst lists make U. S. Presidents for Dummies a historical blast to read and a must-have for understanding the state of both yesterday’s and today’s union.

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An irreverent but informative look at U.S. presidential politics takes a close-up look at the personalities and administrations of each of the U.S. presidents, examining their various accomplishments, failures, famous speeches, scandals, trivia, and influence on the course of American history. Original.

U.S. Presidents For Dummies

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By Marcus Stadelmann

John Wiley & Sons

ISBN: 0-7645-0885-7

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Chapter One

Presidents and the Presidency

In This Chapter

Setting up a government for the United States

Creating the presidency

Changing with the times

Possessing formal powers

Developing informal powers

Fighting Congress

This chapter looks at the U.S. presidency. It talks about how the U.S. system of government was established. It also discusses the Constitution and the evolution of the presidency from a weak ceremonial post, such as the presidency of James Madison, to the imperial presidency of FDR. Today we find a stalemate between the presidency and Congress, resulting in much bargaining and compromising and the occasional government shutdown. In addition, the chapter covers formal powers the president possesses, such as the power to cast a veto. Finally, the president has been granted or assumed some special, informal powers, especially the power to manipulate public opinion. The discussion of these informal powers rounds out the chapter.

Establishing the First U.S. Government

In 1774, 12 colonies (Georgia refused to attend) agreed to get together and set up a united legislature, or Continental Congress, to speak with one voice against British oppression. The Continental Congress turned into a national legislature during the Revolutionary War and stuck around after independence was declared, assuming the functions of a new national government.

In 1781, the Congress passed the Articles of Confederation, creating a confederation between the 13 former colonies. After the states agreed on the Articles of Confederation, the Congress renamed itself the Congress of the Confederation and became a weak federal legislature - it was without real powers, including the power to tax or the power to create a national army. The real power remained within the 13 states.

The Congress survived until the Constitution created a new form of government in 1789, and the Congress of the United States replaced the Congress of the Confederation.

A confederation is a form of government where power rests at the state level and not at the national level.

Facing problems

The confederation system caused immediate problems for the new country:

Without the power to tax, the Congress could not support a large military, which was dangerous with the British, Russian, and Spanish empires still in North America.

The war bonds sold to finance the war against Britain presented another problem. With the war over and the national government unable to tax, nobody redeemed the bonds. Many patriotic people who bought war bonds to support the war for independence lost their life savings when they couldn't redeem the bonds. Not surprisingly, people complained.

Trade became a problem, with the states treating each other like they were foreign countries. How can a united country be established when its members impose trade restrictions against each other?

Writing a constitution

By 1785, many prominent politicians in the United States were worried. They felt that the new country was in serious trouble and that the new government, created by the Articles of Confederation, was not working. For this purpose, a national meeting in Philadelphia was called to change or revise the Articles of Confederation. This meeting, also referred to as the Constitutional Convention, began in May of 1787. Its original purpose was just to change the Articles of Confederation, not to write a new Constitution. The convention lasted until September 1787, when the delegates actually overstepped their authority and voted to approve a new constitution for the country.

Instead of revising the Articles of Confederation, the delegates created a brand new document - the Constitution of the United States. They felt that a revision of the Articles of Confederation would not accomplish the task of creating a strong, united country. So they wrote a brand new document instead, abolishing the Articles of Confederation and setting up a new form of government. The Constitution called for the following:

The creation of a federal republic, where the states and the national-federal government shared powers

A bicameral Congress with two chambers - the House of Representatives (selected by the people) and the Senate (equally represented by the states, with each state sending two Senators)

An executive, or president, elected by an Electoral College every four years

A Supreme Court nominated by the president and ratified by the Senate

Drawing up the presidency

During the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787, the hottest topic was what kind of executive to have. Some wanted a strong executive, even a king. Others wanted a weak executive at the mercy of Congress. Some even proposed multiple executives, with more than one president serving in the various areas of government.

James Wilson, a delegate from Pennsylvania, was responsible for the presidency we have today. During the debate, he based the modern presidency on the New York and Massachusetts State constitutions.

One of the big questions at the Constitutional Convention was whether to create a parliamentary or a presidential republic. In a parliamentary system, the legislature, not the citizens, selects the executive. Chosen by the majority, the executive's party always controls the legislature. In a presidential republic, voters choose the president. This can result in a divided government, with one party controlling the legislature and the other the presidency.

A presidential system, such as the form the United States adopted, creates moderate policies, involving lots of compromise, because the executive and Congress have to bargain with each other to be successful. In a parliamentary system, the executive always gets what he or she wants, because it controls the legislature.

Being unique

The system of checks and balances is a feature unique to the United States. The delegates at the convention wanted to make sure that the president wouldn't dominate the new government. So they implemented many checks on his power. Congress and the Supreme Court can check the president in the areas the delegates considered the most important, resulting in this system of checks and balances. These areas included treaty-making, war-making and especially the power to declare war, which was given to Congress. Congress and the Supreme Court further received the power to override a president's veto and to remove him from office if necessary.

Today, the president is the most powerful politician on earth, but he has to share a lot of his powers with Congress.

Over the next two centuries, the power and influence of the presidency developed and changed.

Granting formal presidential powers

The Constitution, even though a brief document, sets aside Article II to discuss the presidency. Article II outlines the Electoral College and the powers of the president. The Constitution formally mentions the following powers in Section 2 and Section 3 of Article II of the Constitution. The powers are listed in the order found in the Constitution:

Commander in chief of the armed forces: This power has caused much controversy. Many presidents have interpreted it to mean that they have the power to make war. Congress, on the other hand, has the constitutional power to declare war. The War Powers Act of 1973 (discussed later in this chapter) further contributes to the controversy surrounding this power.

Granting reprieves and pardons: The president has the power to pardon anyone for federal offenses. The only exception is impeachment. The president cannot pardon someone who has been impeached.

Making treaties: The president has the power to negotiate treaties with foreign countries. All treaties have to be approved by the Senate with a two-thirds majority.

Appointing Supreme Court Justices and ambassadors: The president has the power to appoint justices of the U.S. Supreme Court and ambassadors. In both instances, the Senate has to approve his choices.

Convening Congress to special sessions: In emergency situations, the president has the power to call Congress into a special session.

Receiving ambassadors: The president has the right to receive foreign ambassadors and other foreign dignitaries to discuss policy with them.

Ensuring that the laws are faithfully executed: That's all the Constitution says about this power. Today, presidents interpret it as the power to make policy, as outlined in the annual budget the president submits to Congress.

Vetoing legislation

Additional powers of the president are found in Article I, Section 7. Even though Article I deals mainly with Congressional powers, it does discuss the veto power of the president. According to Section 7, the president possesses the power to veto legislation passed by Congress. He has ten days to veto a bill and has to explain to Congress why he cast the veto. Congress then has the option to override a president's veto. This requires a two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress.

If Congress passes a bill within ten days of adjourning, the president can cast a pocket veto. All he has to do is to let the bill sit on his desk until Congress adjourns and the bill has been vetoed. Pocket vetoes cannot be overridden, because Congress has no chance to vote on the veto. Most vetoes stand, or are not overridden by Congress. Less than 4 percent of all vetoes in U.S. history have been overridden.

Interpreting presidential powers

The Constitution is not very specific on presidential powers. Many are vague and open to broad interpretation. For example, does to "faithfully execute the laws" mean that a president just observes Congress and then makes Congressional legislation law? Or can the president make laws himself? As commander in chief, is the president just some kind of super-general reacting to Congress, which has the power to declare war, or is he the supreme war maker in the United States? It is thus left up to the president to define his role.

Different men who have held the office have interpreted their powers differently. For example, in 1861, after President Lincoln took office and before Congress reconvened, Lincoln unilaterally reacted to the attack on Fort Sumter by the Confederacy (see Chapter 10). He defined the role of commander in chief by taking over the war effort himself. In addition, he single-handedly freed the slaves in the Confederacy with the Emancipation Proclamation. He felt his actions were justified by the emergency of the Civil War. Lincoln's predecessor, James Buchanan, however, believed that his powers did not extend to preventing the Southern states from leaving the Union. So he refused to act when the first Southern states left the Union and created the Confederacy.

Examining Presidential Influence on the Presidency

Just as the president is a living, breathing person, the presidency is a living, breathing institution. The men who have so far filled the office have put their own unique stamp on the office, for better or worse. The following sections give you some examples.

During the period from 1789 to 1824, most U.S. presidents were prominent men known to most U.S. citizens. They included many of our founding fathers and others who had served their country valiantly in the Revolutionary War. With the exception of John Adams, each of the first 5 presidents served two terms, bringing a measure of stability to the young country.

They legitimized the new government, or in other words, they created public support for the new form of government. Even if one disagreed with the new form of government created by the Constitution, how could one oppose George Washington as president? These presidents set the foundation for the United States. However, during this time period, Congress dominated and made most decisions for the United States. The president was considered to be a caretaker, and his job was to implement policies passed by Congress.

Challenging Congress: Andrew Jackson

When Andrew Jackson assumed office in 1829, he believed that he had a mandate from the people and that it was his job to not only implement policies passed by Congress but to make his own. He saw himself as a guardian of the people, with a mission to protect them from the excesses of Congress.

He challenged Congress and vetoed major congressional legislation. Jackson actually vetoed more legislation than all of his predecessors combined.

Jackson's interpretation of a powerful president disappeared with him. His successors perceived their role as one of reacting to Congress.

With the exception of Abraham Lincoln, Teddy Roosevelt, and Woodrow Wilson, all presidents for the next century subordinated themselves to Congress. Congress made policy for the United States, and the presidents passively endorsed it.

Creating the imperial presidency: Franklin Roosevelt

With the Great Depression hitting the country hard in 1929, and World War II (WWII) starting in Europe in 1939, the U.S. public looked for strong leadership.

They found it in Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Starting with his election in 1932, FDR single-handedly created the imperial presidency. He was responsible for the New Deal programs, which greatly enhanced the powers of the presidency by establishing a large federal bureaucracy over which the president presides. Roosevelt put a massive welfare state in place (see Chapter 16) and had government take an active role in the economy. FDR made it the business of the president to take care of the U.S. public.

Foreign policy also came to the forefront when FDR took over in 1933. He moved the United States to support the Allies during WWII. During the war, he met with Allied leaders and hammered out major agreements. The subsequent Cold War further involved the United States in global affairs.

The trend of the president dominating foreign policy continued, and presidents today are the foreign policy leaders in the United States. By the time Lyndon Johnson assumed the presidency in 1963, Congress was reacting to the president, who now made both domestic and foreign policy for the country.

Dethroning the imperial presidency: Richard Nixon

In 1974, Richard Nixon destroyed the imperial presidency with the Watergate scandal and its aftermath. Congress saw the executive position weakened and took this chance to restore some of the power it had lost to the president.

Continues...

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Excerpted from U.S. Presidents For Dummies by Marcus Stadelmann Excerpted by permission.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
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Marcus Stadelmann is the author of The Dependent Ally: German Foreign Policy 1949—1990 and a contributor to Political Leaders of Contemporary Western Europe.