Accretion of Extraterrestrial Matter Throughout Earth's History: Peucker-Ehrenbrink, Bernhard; Schmitz, Birger : 9780306466892: Book: : eCampus.com

Every year Earth is bombarded with about 40,000 tons of extraterrestrial material. This includes microscopic cosmic dust particles shed by comets and asteroids in outer space, meteorites, as well as large comets and asteroids that have led to catastrophic events in the geologic past. Originally considered only a curiosity, extraterrestrial matter found on Earth provides the only samples we have from comets, asteroids and other planets. Only recently mankind has started to actively collect extraterrestrial matter in space (Apollo program, Stardust mission) rather than to wait for its delivery to Earth. Still, most of our knowledge of the origin and evolution of our solar system is based on careful studies of meteorites, cosmic dust, and traces of large impact events in the geologic record such as the mass extinction that terminated the Cretaceous Period and led to the extinction of the dinosaurs. This book summarizes our current knowledge of the properties, origin, orbital evolution and accretion mechanism of extraterrestrial matter accreted on Earth and sheds light on accretion processes and fluxes in the geologic past. The chapters in the first part of the book are arranged in order to follow extraterrestrial matter from its origin in space, its orbital evolution on its way to Earth, its interaction with the Earth magnetosphere and atmosphere to its more or less violent collision with the Earth's surface. In the second part of the book several chapters deal with the present?day flux of cosmic dust and meteorites to Earth. Finally, several chapters deal with the reconstruction of the accretion history of extraterrestrial matter on Earth, starting with the most recent geologic past and ending with the very early, violent accretion period shortly after the formation of Earth, Moon and other solid planets in our solar system.

In Memoriam---Paolo Farinella

David Vokrouhlicky

List of Contributors

vii

Foreword

Walter Alvarez

Preface

xiii

Acknowledgments

The Origin and Properties of Dust Impacting the Earth

(12)

Donald E. Brownlee

Abstract

(1)

Introduction

(1)

Origin

(2)

Accretion and Atmospheric Entry Effects

(2)

Properties

(4)

Modification in Sediments

(1)

References

(2)

Sources and Orbital Evolution of Interplanetary Dust Accreted by Earth

(18)

Stephen J. Kortenkamp

Stanley F. Dermott

Debra Fogle

Keith Grogan

Abstract

(1)

Introduction

(1)

Sources of Dust in the Zodiacal Cloud

(5)

Asteroidal Dust Bands

(3)

Cometary Dust

(1)

Earth's Circumsolar Resonant Dust Ring

(1)

Sources of Dust Accreted by Earth

(4)

Two Populations of Comentary IDPs

(2)

Long-term Variations

(3)

Accretion from the Dust Bands

(3)

Accretion from the Resonant Ring

(1)

Summary and Discussion

(2)

References

(3)

Delivery of Material From the Asteroid Belt

(20)

Paolo Farinella

David Vokrouhlicky

Alessandro Morbidelli

Abstract

(1)

Introduction

(3)

The Classical Scenario

(1)

Recent Dynamical Discoveries

(2)

A New Scenario

(6)

Transport Histories vs. Size

(2)

Open Problems

(1)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(5)

The Influx of Comets and their Debris

(24)

William M. Napier

Abstract

(1)

Bombarding the Earth

(1)

Small Body Populations

(4)

Asteroids

(1)

Centaurs and the Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt

(1)

Comets

(1)

Impact Rates and Sources

(3)

Dusting

(4)

Arrival of Comets

(1)

Meteoroids Loss from Comets

(2)

Meteoroid Streams

(1)

The Taurid Complex

(2)

The Fluctuating Zodiacal Cloud

(4)

Discussion and Conclusion

(1)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(4)

Spacecraft Measurements of the Cosmic Dust Flux

(18)

Herbert A. Zook

Abstract

(1)

Introduction

(1)

Early Meteoroid Penetration Data

(5)

Gemini

(1)

Pioneer 8 and 9

(3)

LDEF

(2)

Galileo and Ulysses

(2)

Concluding Remarks

(1)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(3)

Magnetospheric Effects on the Cosmic Dust Input into the Earth's Atmosphere

(14)

Antal Juhasz

Mihaly Horanyi

Abstract

(1)

Introduction

(1)

Charging and Dynamics of Dust Particles

(4)

Electromagnetic Fields Model

(1)

Plasma Model

(1)

Dust Potential

(1)

Cometary Dust (Leonids)

(1)

Dust from the Moon

(2)

Interplanetary Micrometeoroids

100

(3)

Electrostatic Disruption of Dust Grains

103

(1)

Summary

104

(1)

Acknowledgments

105

(1)

References

105

(2)

Atmospheric Entry Heating of Interplanetary Dust

107

(22)

George J. Flynn

Abstract

107

(1)

Introduction

108

(1)

Atmospheric Entry Heating Calculations

108

(2)

Distribution of Temperatures on Entry

110

(15)

Heating Calculations

110

(1)

Heating Calculations

110

(2)

Heating as an Indicator of Particle Source

112

(1)

Sensitivity to Particle Density

113

(1)

Entry Heating Modeling

114

(1)

Emissivity of Small Particles

115

(1)

Computer Simulations of Atmospheric Entry Heating

116

(2)

Time-Temperature Heating Profile

118

(1)

Atmospheric Density

118

(1)

Thermal Inertia

118

(1)

Large Particles---Effects of Ablation

119

(2)

Aerocapture Into Earth Orbit

121

(1)

Survival of Organic Compounds and Low Temperature Minerals

122

(1)

Internal Temperature Profile

122

(1)

Other Solar System Bodies

123

(1)

Interstellar Grains

124

(1)

Validity of the Entry Heating Models

124

(1)

Summary and Future Work

125

(1)

References

126

(3)

Extraterrestrial Material and Stratospheric Aerosols

129

(14)

Daniel M. Murphy

Abstract

129

(1)

History

129

(14)

PALMS Observations

132

(3)

Budgets of Extraterrestrial Material and Stratospheric Aerosols

135

(2)

Implications for the Stratosphere

137

(1)

Implications for Deposition of Extraterrestrial Material

138

(1)

Research Implications

139

(1)

Conclusions

140

(1)

Acknowledgments

140

(1)

References

140

(3)

Glacial Cycles and Interplanetary Dust

143

(20)

Richard A. Muller

Abstract

143

(1)

Introduction

143

(1)

Astronomical Origins of Glacial Cycles

144

(3)

Narrow 100 kyr Peak

147

(1)

The Orbital Inclination Model

148

(2)

The 41 kyr Cycle and Winter Insolation

150

(2)

The 41 kyr to 100 kyr ``Transition''

152

(1)

Prediction and Observation of 100 kyr Cycles in Dust

152

(1)

Bispectra

153

(1)

Simultaneous Presence---Croll/Milankovitch Revived

153

(1)

Mechanisms Linking Dust to Climate

154

(3)

Scattering of Sunlight

155

(1)

Effect of Dust on Cloud Cover

155

(1)

Ozone

156

(1)

Other Mechanisms

156

(1)

Criticisms of the Accretion Model

157

(1)

Summary and Conclusions

158

(1)

Acknowledgments

159

(1)

References

159

(4)

Iridium and Osmium as Tracers of Extraterrestrial Matter in Marine Sediments

163

(16)

Bernhard Peucker-Ehrenbrink

Abstract

163

(1)

Introduction

164

(1)

Fundamentals

164

(5)

Sampling Artifacts

166

(1)

Fractionation of Ir and Os in the Marine Environment

167

(2)

Sources of Ir and Os in Marine Sediments

169

(1)

Osmium Isotope Mixing Model

169

(6)

Temporal Variations in the ET Matter Flux

172

(1)

Latitudinal Variations in the ET Matter Flux

173

(2)

Some Application to Earth Science

175

(1)

Acknowledgments

176

(1)

References

176

(3)

Extraterrestrial Helium in Seafloor Sediments: Identification, Characteristics, and Accretion Rate over Geologic Time

179

(26)

Kenneth A. Farley

Abstract

179

(1)

Introduction

180

(1)

Extraterrestrial 3He in Sediments

180

(8)

Quantifying the Extraterrestrial Component

182

(2)

Deconvolution

184

(2)

Stepped Heating: An Alternative Approach

186

(2)

The Extraterrestrial Helium Carrier

188

(4)

Composition

188

(1)

Size Distribution

189

(1)

Implications

190

(2)

The Sedimentary 3He Record

192

(8)

Variations in IDP Flux Inferred from the Sedimentary 3He Record

193

(7)

Conclusions

200

(1)

Acknowledgments

201

(1)

References

201

(4)

Seeking Unbiased Collections of Modern and Ancient Micrometeorites

205

(16)

Susan Taylor

James H. Lever

Abstract

205

(1)

Introduction

205

(5)

Collecting Micrometeorites

210

(1)

Flux, Size, and Composition Distributions

211

(4)

Discussion

215

(1)

Future Work

216

(1)

Acknowledgments

217

(1)

References

217

(4)

Cosmic Ray Exposure History of Meteorites

221

(20)

Rainer Wieler

Thomas Graf

Abstract

221

(1)

Introduction

222

(1)

Production of Cosmogenic Nuclides

222

(3)

Exposure Age Distributions of Meteorites from Asteroids

225

(7)

Ordinary Chondrites and HED Meteorites

227

(3)

Carbonaceous Chondrites

230

(1)

Iron Meteorites

231

(1)

Exposure Ages of Lunar and Martian Meteorites

232

(1)

Complex Exposure Histories

233

(2)

Summary and Implications for Meteorite Delivery

235

(3)

Acknowledgments

238

(1)

References

238

(3)

Terrestrial Ages of Meteorites

241

(26)

A. J. Timothy Jull

Abstract

241

(1)

Introduction

241

(5)

Qualitative Estimates of Terrestrial Age

243

(1)

Production of Radionuclides

243

(3)

Techniques Employed

246

(1)

Counter Methods

246

(1)

AMS Methods

246

(1)

Noble-Gas Mass Spectrometry

247

(1)

Basic Relations

247

(1)

Production Rates

248

(3)

Production of 14C

248

(2)

Production of 36Cl

250

(1)

26Al Measurements

250

(1)

81Kr Dating

250

(1)

Terrestrial Ages of Meteorites from Different Regions

251

(7)

Antarctica

251

(4)

Desert Meteorites

255

(2)

Weathering of Meteorites from Different Storage Regimes

257

(1)

New Methods for Dating

258

(2)

14C-10Be Dating

258

(1)

36Cl-41Ca and 36Cl-10Be Dating

259

(1)

59Ni Dating

259

(1)

Dating of Meteorite Craters Using In-Situ-Produced Cosmogenic Radionuclides

259

(1)

Transit Times of Martian and Lunar Meteorites

260

(1)

Conclusions

260

(1)

Acknowledgments

261

(1)

References

261

(6)

Quantification of Meteorite Infall Rates from Accumulations in Deserts, and Meteorite Accumulations on Mars

267

(38)

Philip A. Bland

Abstract

267

(1)

Introduction

268

(3)

Background

271

(3)

Terrestrial Ages

271

(1)

Oxidation and Terrestrial Age Data

272

(1)

Ordinary Chondrites

273

(1)

Reproducibility

274

(1)

Hot Desert Meteorite Accumulations

274

(11)

Hot Desert R(t) and R(n) Distributions

274

(3)

The Model

277

(4)

Pairing and Mass Distribution

281

(1)

Number Per Unit Area

282

(1)

The Flux Estimate

283

(1)

Problems and Assumptions

284

(1)

The Antarctic Situation

285

(6)

Introduction

285

(1)

Results and Discussion

286

(3)

A Speculative Model

289

(2)

The Future

291

(1)

Meteorite Accumulations on Mars

291

(7)

Introduction

291

(1)

The Model

292

(2)

Meteorite Flux at Mars Surface

294

(1)

Rates of Weathering on the Surface of Mars

295

(1)

Discussion

296

(2)

Conclusions

298

(1)

Acknowledgments

298

(1)

References

298

(7)

The Present-day Flux of Meteorites to the Earth

305

(14)

Ian Halliday

Abstract

305

(1)

Introduction

305

(1)

Evaluation of the Meteorite Flux

306

(7)

Early Estimates

306

(1)

Flux Estimates from the MORP Camera Network

306

(6)

Flux Estimates from Meteorites Recovered in Deserts

312

(1)

Variation of Influx Rate with Time of Day, Season, and Latitude

313

(2)

Do Potential Meteorites Travel in Stream?

315

(1)

Summary

316

(1)

Acknowledgments

317

(1)

References

317

(2)

Fossil Meteorites

319

(14)

Birger Schmitz

Mario Tassinari

Abstract

319

(1)

Introduction

319

(2)

The Brunflo Meteorite

321

(1)

The Osterplana Ark 001 Meteorite

322

(1)

The Osterplana Meteorite Search Program 1992-2000

323

(5)

Thirty-five Fossil Meteorites

323

(1)

Vertical Meteorite Distribution

324

(2)

Chemistry and Mineralogy

326

(1)

Early Ordovician Meteorite Flux Estimates

327

(1)

The K-T Boundary Meteorite

328

(1)

Prospective Studies of Fossil Meteorites

329

(1)

Acknowledgments

330

(1)

References

330

(3)

The Sedimentary Record of Impact Events

333

(46)

Christian Koeberl

Abstract

333

(1)

Introduction

334

(2)

Evidence for Impact in the Sedimentary Record

336

(3)

Implications of K-T Boundary Studies

336

(1)

Proximal vs. Distal Ejecta

337

(2)

Case Studies for Distal Ejecta

339

(8)

The K-T Boundary

339

(1)

Evidence for Impact at the K-T Boundary

340

(5)

Chicxulub---The K-T Source Crater

345

(2)

Tektites and Microtektites

347

(10)

General Information: Strewn Fields, Definition

347

(4)

Geochemistry and Petrography of Tektites

351

(2)

Source Rock of Tektites

353

(1)

Source Craters of Tektites

354

(2)

Tektite Formation

356

(1)

Other Distal Ejecta and Possible Source Craters

357

(9)

South African and Australian Archean Spherule Layers

357

(3)

Acraman Impact Structure and Ejecta Layer

360

(1)

Late Devonian Impact Layer and Alamo Breccia

361

(1)

Permian-Triassic Boundary

361

(1)

Triassic-Jurassic Boundary

362

(1)

Morokweng and the Jurassic-Cretaceous Boundary

362

(1)

Manson Impact Structure and Ejecta Layer

363

(1)

Late Eocene Impactoclastic Layers

363

(3)

Conclusions: Distal Impact Ejecta in the Stratigraphic Record

366

(1)

Acknowledgments

367

(1)

References

367

(12)

The Terrestrial Cratering Record

379

(24)

Richard A. F. Grieve

Abstract

379

(1)

Introduction

380

(1)

General Character of the Record

380

(10)

Spatial Distribution

381

(6)

Age Distribution

387

(1)

Size Distribution

387

(1)

Terrestrial Cratering Rate

388

(1)

Periodic Impacts

389

(1)

Recognition of Terrestrial Impact Structures

390

(7)

Morphology

390

(4)

Geology of Impact Structures

394

(1)

Sub-Solidus Effects

395

(1)

Impact Melting

395

(2)

Geophysics of Impact Structures

397

(1)

Impacts in the Stratigraphic Record

397

(1)

Concluding Remarks

398

(1)

Acknowledgments

399

(1)

References

399

(4)

The Lunar Record of Recent Impact Cratering

403

(20)

Jennifer A. Grier

Alfred S. McEwen

Abstract

403

(1)

Introduction

404

(1)

An Increase in the Terrestrial Impactor Flux?

404

(1)

Summary of Lunar Stratigraphic Systems

405

(1)

Classification of Young Craters

406

(1)

Absolute Ages of Recent Lunar Craters

407

(4)

Relative Ages of Recent Lunar Craters

411

(5)

The Clementine Mission

411

(2)

The Optical Maturity (OMAT) Parameter

413

(1)

Relative Ages of Large Lunar Craters

413

(3)

The Recent Impactor Flux on the Moon

416

(1)

Implications for the Recent Infall of Material onto Earth

417

(1)

Conclusions

418

(1)

References

419

(4)

Accretion to Earth and Moon ∼3.85 Ga

423

(24)

Stephen J. Mojzsis

Graham Ryder

Abstract

423

(1)

Introduction

423

(1)

Accretion and Earliest Crustal Formation of the Earth and Moon

424

(2)

Terrestrial Crust Formation

425

(1)

Lunar Crust Formation

426

(1)

The Late Heavy Bombardment of the Moon

426

(2)

Lunar Highland Relative Stratigraphy

428

(3)

Absolute Dating of the Impact Stratigraphic Sequence: Constraints from Lunar Samples

431

(2)

The Oldest Mare Surfaces and the Age of Orientale (Beginning of the Late Imbrian Epoch)

431

(1)

The Age of Imbrium (the Beginning of the Early Imbrian Epoch)

431

(1)

The Age of Nectaris (Beginning of the Nectarian Period)

432

(1)

Pre-Nectarian Period and Events

432

(1)

Significance of the Lunar Cratering Record, 3.9-3.8 Ga

433

(1)

The Earliest Known Sedimentary Rocks on Earth ∼3.85 Ga

434

(2)

Controversy Over Age Relationships of the Oldest Sediments

435

(1)

Search for Evidence of Ancient Impacts in the Oldest Rocks

436

(3)

Siderophile Elements on Early Earth

436

(1)

Terrestrial Sources of Iridium in Marine Sediments

436

(1)

Search for Enhanced Extraterrestrial Influx of Siderophile Elements

437

(2)

Perspectives on Accretion to the Earth and Moon ∼3.85 Ga

439

(2)

Acknowledgments

441

(1)

References

441

(6)

Solar System Impact Rates Measured from Lunar Spherule Ages

447

(6)

Richard A. Muller

Timothy A. Becker

Timothy S. Culler

Paul R. Renne

Abstract

447

(5)

References

452

(1)

List of Reviewers

453

(2)

Index

455


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