Machine Vision: Davies: 9780122060939: Book: : eCampus.com

In the last 40 years, machine vision has evolved into a mature field embracing a wide range of applications including surveillance, automated inspection, robot assembly, vehicle guidance, traffic monitoring and control, signature verification, biometric measurement, and analysis of remotely sensed images. While researchers and industry specialists continue to document their work in this area, it has become increasingly difficult for professionals and graduate students to understand the essential theory and practicalities well enough to design their own algorithms and systems. This book directly addresses this need.

As in earlier editions, E.R. Davies clearly and systematically presents the basic concepts of the field in highly accessible prose and images, covering essential elements of the theory while emphasizing algorithmic and practical design constraints. In this thoroughly updated edition, he divides the material into horizontal levels of a complete machine vision system. Application case studies demonstrate specific techniques and illustrate key constraints for designing real-world machine vision systems.

Includes solid, accessible coverage of 2-D and 3-D scene analysis.
Offers thorough treatment of the Hough Transform a key technique for inspection and surveillance.
Brings vital topics and techniques together in an integrated system design approach.
Takes full account of the requirement for real-time processing in real applications.

Foreword

xxiii

Preface

xxv

Acknowledgments

xxix

Vision, the Challenge

Introduction---The Senses

(1)

The Nature of Vision

(9)

The Process of Recognition

(2)

Tackling the Recognition Problem

(3)

Object Location

(2)

Scene Analysis

(1)

Vision as Inverse Graphics

(1)

From Automated Visual Inspection to Surveillance

(1)

What This Book Is About

(2)

The Following Chapters

(1)

Bibliographical Notes

(2)

PART 1 LOW-LEVEL VISION

(246)

Images and Imaging Operations

Introduction

(5)

Gray-scale versus Color

(3)

Image Processing Operations

(15)

Some Basic Operations on Gray-scale Images

(7)

Basic Operations on Binary Images

(5)

Noise Suppression by Image Accumulation

(2)

Convolutions and Point Spread Functions

(2)

Sequential versus Parallel Operations

(2)

Concluding Remarks

(1)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

(1)

Problems

(3)

Basic Image Filtering Operations

Introduction

(2)

Noise Suppression by Gaussian Smoothing

(2)

Median Filters

(3)

Mode Filters

(7)

Rank Order Filters

(1)

Reducing Computational Load

(4)

A Bit-based Method for Fast Median Filtering

(1)

Sharp--Unsharp Masking

(1)

Shifts Introduced by Median Filters

(12)

Continuum Model of Median Shifts

(4)

Generalization to Gray-scale Images

(3)

Shifts Arising with Hybrid Median Filters

(1)

Problems with Statistics

(2)

Discrete Model of Median Shifts

(6)

Generalization to Gray-scale Images

(2)

Shifts Introduced by Mode Filters

(2)

Shifts Introduced by Mean and Gaussian Filters

(1)

Shifts Introduced by Rank Order Filters

(8)

Shifts in Rectangular Neighborhoods

(4)

Case of High Curvature

(1)

Test of the Model in a Discrete Case

(3)

The Role of Filters in Industrial Applications of Vision

(1)

Color in Image Filtering

(2)

Concluding Remarks

(1)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

(2)

Problems

(5)

Thresholding Techniques

Introduction

103

(1)

Region-growing Methods

104

(1)

Thresholding

105

(9)

Finding a Suitable Threshold

105

(2)

Tackling the Problem of Bias in Threshold Selection

107

(4)

A Convenient Mathematical Model

111

(3)

Summary

114

(1)

Adaptive Thresholding

114

(8)

The Chow and Kaneko Approach

118

(1)

Local Thresholding Methods

119

(3)

More Thoroughgoing Approaches to Threshold Selection

122

(4)

Variance-based Thresholding

122

(1)

Entropy-based Thresholding

123

(2)

Maximum Likelihood Thresholding

125

(1)

Concluding Remarks

126

(1)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

127

(2)

Problems

129

(2)

Edge Detection

Introduction

131

(1)

Basic Theory of Edge Detection

132

(1)

The Template Matching Approach

133

(2)

Theory of 3 x 3 Template Operators

135

(5)

Summary---Design Constraints and Conclusions

140

(1)

The Design of Differential Gradient Operators

141

(2)

The Concept of a Circular Operator

143

(1)

Detailed Implementation of Circular Operators

144

(2)

Structured Bands of Pixels in Neighborhoods of Various Sizes

146

(4)

The Systematic Design of Differential Edge Operators

150

(1)

Problems with the above Approach---Some Alternative Schemes

151

(4)

Concluding Remarks

155

(1)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

156

(1)

Problems

157

(2)

Binary Shape Analysis

Introduction

159

(1)

Connectedness in Binary Images

160

(1)

Object Labeling and Counting

161

(7)

Solving the Labeling Problem in a More Complex Case

164

(4)

Metric Properties in Digital Images

168

(1)

Size Filtering

169

(2)

The Convex Hull and Its Computation

171

(6)

Distance Functions and Their Uses

177

(4)

Skeletons and Thinning

181

(12)

Crossing Number

183

(3)

Parallel and Sequential Implementations of Thinning

186

(3)

Guided Thinning

189

(1)

A Comment on the Nature of the Skeleton

189

(2)

Skeleton Node Analysis

191

(1)

Application of Skeletons for Shape Recognition

192

(1)

Some Simple Measures for Shape Recognition

193

(1)

Shape Description by Moments

194

(1)

Boundary Tracking Procedures

195

(1)

More Detail on the Sigma and Chi Functions

196

(1)

Concluding Remarks

197

(2)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

199

(1)

Problems

200

(7)

Boundary Pattern Analysis

Introduction

207

(5)

Hysteresis Thresholding

209

(3)

Boundary Tracking Procedures

212

(1)

Template Matching---A Reminder

212

(1)

Centroidal Profiles

213

(1)

Problems with the Centroidal Profile Approach

214

(4)

Some Solutions

216

(2)

The (s, ψ) Plot

218

(2)

Tackling the Problems of Occlusion

220

(3)

Chain Code

223

(1)

The (r, s) Plot

224

(1)

Accuracy of Boundary Length Measures

225

(2)

Concluding Remarks

227

(1)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

228

(1)

Problems

229

(4)

Mathematical Morphology

Introduction

233

(1)

Dilation and Erosion in Binary Images

234

(1)

Dilation and Erosion

234

(1)

Cancellation Effects

234

(1)

Modified Dilation and Erosion Operators

235

(1)

Mathematical Morphology

235

(14)

Generalized Morphological Dilation

235

(2)

Generalized Morphological Erosion

237

(1)

Duality between Dilation and Erosion

238

(1)

Properties of Dilation and Erosion Operators

239

(3)

Closing and Opening

242

(3)

Summary of Basic Morphological Operations

245

(3)

Hit-and-Miss Transform

248

(1)

Template Matching

249

(1)

Connectivity-based Analysis of Images

249

(2)

Skeletons and Thinning

250

(1)

Gray-scale Processing

251

(4)

Morphological Edge Enhancement

252

(1)

Further Remarks on the Generalization to Gray-scale Processing

252

(3)

Effect of Noise on Morphological Grouping Operations

255

(4)

Detailed Analysis

257

(2)

Discussion

259

(1)

Concluding Remarks

259

(1)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

260

(1)

Problem

261

(2)

PART 2 INTERMEDIATE-LEVEL VISION

263

(180)

Line Detection

Introduction

265

(1)

Application of the Hough Transform to Line Detection

265

(4)

The Foot-of-Normal Method

269

(7)

Error Analysis

272

(2)

Quality of the Resulting Data

274

(2)

Application of the Foot-of-Normal Method

276

(1)

Longitudinal Line Localization

276

(1)

Final Line Fitting

277

(1)

Concluding Remarks

277

(1)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

278

(2)

Problems

280

(3)

Circle Detection

Introduction

283

(1)

Hough-based Schemes for Circular Object Detection

284

(4)

The Problem of Unknown Circle Radius

288

(7)

Experimental Results

290

(5)

The Problem of Accurate Center Location

295

(7)

Obtaining a Method for Reducing Computational Load

296

(3)

Improvements on the Basic Scheme

299

(1)

Discussion

300

(1)

Practical Details

300

(2)

Overcoming the Speed Problem

302

(8)

More Detailed Estimates of Speed

303

(2)

Robustness

305

(1)

Experimental Results

306

(1)

Summary

307

(3)

Concluding Remarks

310

(1)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

311

(1)

Problems

312

(3)

The Hough Transform and Its Nature

Introduction

315

(1)

The Generalized Hough Transform

315

(2)

Setting Up the Generalized Hough Transform---Some Relevant Questions

317

(1)

Spatial Matched Filtering in Images

318

(1)

From Spatial Matched Filters to Generalized Hough Transforms

319

(1)

Gradient Weighting versus Uniform Weighting

320

(4)

Calculation of Sensitivity and Computational Load

323

(1)

Summary

324

(1)

Applying the Generalized Hough Transform to Line Detection

325

(2)

The Effects of Occlusions for Objects with Straight Edges

327

(2)

Fast Implementations of the Hough Transform

329

(3)

The Approach of Gerig and Klein

332

(1)

Concluding Remarks

333

(1)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

334

(3)

Problem

337

(2)

Ellipse Detection

Introduction

339

(1)

The Diameter Bisection Method

339

(2)

The Chord--Tangent Method

341

(2)

Finding the Remaining Ellipse Parameters

343

(2)

Reducing Computational Load for the Generalized Hough Transform Method

345

(8)

Practical Details

349

(4)

Comparing the Various Methods

353

(2)

Concluding Remarks

355

(2)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

357

(1)

Problems

358

(3)

Hole Detection

Introduction

361

(1)

The Template Matching Approach

361

(2)

The Lateral Histogram Technique

363

(1)

The Removal of Ambiguities in the Lateral Histogram Technique

363

(5)

Computational Implications of the Need to Check for Ambiguities

364

(2)

Further Detail of the Subimage Method

366

(2)

Application of the Lateral Histogram Technique for Object Location

368

(4)

Limitations of the Approach

370

(2)

Appraisal of the Hole Detection Problem

372

(2)

Concluding Remarks

374

(1)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

375

(1)

Problems

376

(3)

Polygon and Corner Detection

Introduction

379

(1)

The Generalized Hough Transform

380

(1)

Straight Edge Detection

380

(1)

Application to Polygon Detection

381

(6)

The Case of an Arbitrary Triangle

382

(1)

The Case of an Arbitrary Rectangle

383

(2)

Lower Bounds on the Numbers of Parameter Planes

385

(2)

Determining Polygon Orientation

387

(2)

Why Corner Detection?

389

(1)

Template Matching

390

(1)

Second-order Derivative Schemes

391

(2)

A Median-Filter-Based Corner Detector

393

(6)

Analyzing the Operation of the Median Detector

394

(2)

Practical Results

396

(3)

The Hough Transform Approach to Corner Detection

399

(3)

The Plessey Corner Detector

402

(2)

Corner Orientation

404

(2)

Concluding Remarks

406

(1)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

407

(3)

Problems

410

(3)

Abstract Pattern Matching Techniques

Introduction

413

(1)

A Graph-theoretic Approach to Object Location

414

(8)

A Practical Example---Locating Cream Biscuits

419

(3)

Possibilities for Saving Computation

422

(2)

Using the Generalized Hough Transform for Feature Collation

424

(3)

Computational Load

426

(1)

Generalizing the Maximal Clique and Other Approaches

427

(1)

Relational Descriptors

428

(4)

432

(1)

Concluding Remarks

433

(1)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

434

(3)

Problems

437

(6)

PART 3 3-D VISION AND MOTION

443

(182)

The Three-dimensional World

Introduction

445

(1)

Three-Dimensional Vision---The Variety of Methods

446

(2)

Projection Schemes for Three-dimensional Vision

448

(6)

Binocular Images

450

(2)

The Correspondence Problem

452

(2)

Shape from Shading

454

(5)

Photometric Stereo

459

(3)

The Assumption of Surface Smoothness

462

(2)

Shape from Texture

464

(1)

Use of Structured Lighting

464

(2)

Three-Dimensional Object Recognition Schemes

466

(2)

The Method of Ballard and Sabbah

468

(2)

The Method of Silberberg et al.

470

(2)

Horaud's Junction Orientation Technique

472

(4)

An Important Paradigm---Location of Industrial Parts

476

(2)

Concluding Remarks

478

(2)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

480

(2)

Problems

482

(5)

Tackling the Perspective n-Point Problem

Introduction

487

(1)

The Phenomenon of Perspective Inversion

487

(2)

Ambiguity of Pose under Weak Perspective Projection

489

(4)

Obtaining Unique Solutions to the Pose Problem

493

(5)

Solution of the 3-Point Problem

497

(1)

Using Symmetrical Trapezia for Estimating Pose

498

(1)

Concluding Remarks

498

(3)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

501

(1)

Problems

502

(3)

Motion

Introduction

505

(1)

Optical Flow

505

(4)

Interpretation of Optical Flow Fields

509

(2)

Using Focus of Expansion to Avoid Collision

511

(2)

Time-to-Adjacency Analysis

513

(2)

Basic Difficulties with the Optical Flow Model

515

(1)

Stereo from Motion

516

(2)

Applications to the Monitoring of Traffic Flow

518

(6)

The System of Bascle et al.

518

(2)

The System of Koller et al.

520

(4)

People Tracking

524

(6)

Some Basic Techniques

526

(2)

Within-vehicle Pedestrian Tracking

528

(2)

Human Gait Analysis

530

(3)

Model-based Tracking of Animals---A Case Study

533

(3)

Snakes

536

(2)

The Kalman Filter

538

(2)

Concluding Remarks

540

(2)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

542

(1)

Problem

543

(2)

Invariants and Their Applications

Introduction

545

(2)

Cross Ratios: The ``Ratio of Ratios'' Concept

547

(5)

Invariants for Noncollinear Points

552

(4)

Further Remarks about the 5-Point Configuration

554

(2)

Invariants for Points on Conics

556

(4)

Differential and Semidifferential Invariants

560

(2)

Symmetrical Cross Ratio Functions

562

(2)

Concluding Remarks

564

(2)

Bibliographical and Historical Notes

566

(1)

Problems

567

(4)

Egomotion and Related Tasks

Introduction

571

(1)

Autonomous Mobile Robots

572

(1)

Active Vision

573

(1)

Vanishing Point Detection

574

(2)

Navigation for Autonomous Mobile Robots

576

(3)

Constructing the Plan View of Ground Plane

579

(2)

Further Factors Involved in Mobile Robot Navigation

581

(2)


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