High Speed Photography and Photonics:Ray, Sidney F.; British Association for High Speed Photography :9780240514796:eCampus.com

The book forms an introduction to high speed photography, principally for those who wish to investigate its almost limitless potential as a tool for instrumentation, measurement and analysis in both research and development work. It will also interest those who are mainly concerned with standard photographic and digital imaging procedures but need to know more about high speed recording. As a university textbook it is ideally suited to those undertaking postgraduate research, as well as to undergraduates on courses that include film production, biomedical imaging, scientific photography and applied imaging.

Foreword

xiii

(2)

List of contributors

(6)

Acknowledgements

xix

(1)

Abbreviations

Introduction to high speed photography

(6)

Peter W. W. Fuller

1 Introduction

(1)

1.1 Definitions

(1)

1.2 Purposes and advantages

(1)

2 Properties of the eye

(1)

2.1 Persistence of vision

(1)

2.2 Critical flicker frequency

(1)

2.3 Visual acuity

(1)

3 Image blur

(1)

4 Information content of images

(1)

5 Applications

(1)

6 The future

(1)

References

(1)

Bibliography

(1)

1 The development of high speed photography

(22)

Peter W. W. Fuller

John T. Rendell

1.1 Introduction

(1)

1.2 Early photographic processes

(2)

1.2.1 The daguerreotype

(1)

1.2.2 The calotype

(1)

1.2.3 The wet collodion plate

(1)

1.2.4 The dry plate

(1)

1.3 Early developments in still photography

(3)

1.3.1 William Henry Fox Talbot

(1)

1.3.2 Thomas Skaife

(1)

1.3.3 Ernst Mach

(1)

1.3.4 Joseph Cranz

(1)

1.3.5 Charles Boys

(1)

1.3.6 A. Worthington

(1)

1.4 Early developments in multiple-still and cine photography

(5)

1.4.1 Multiple sparks

(1)

1.4.2 Multiple images/time history

(1)

1.4.3 Work of Eadweard Muybridge

(2)

1.4.4 Etienne-Jules Marey

(1)

1.4.5 George Eastman and the development of cine film

(1)

1.5 The development of cine cameras

(4)

1.5.1 Lighting developments

(1)

1.5.2 Beginnings of high speed cine and still photography

(2)

1.6 1939-1945: World War II developments

(1)

1.7 1945-1955: The post-War years

(1)

1.8 1955-1975: High Speed photography in space research

(1)

1.9 The improvement of rotating prism film cameras

(2)

1.10 From film to electronic imaging

(1)

1.11 1976-1996: From film to video motion analysis

(2)

1.12 Lighting

(1)

1.13 Processing and analysis

(1)

1.14 The future

(1)

References

(1)

Bibliography

(1)

2 Lighting for cine and high speed photography

(19)

Peter W. W. Fuller

2.1 Introduction

(1)

2.2 General requirements

(1)

2.2.1 Lighting combinations

(1)

2.3 Definitions

(1)

2.3.1 Candelas

(1)

2.3.2 Lumens

(1)

2.3.3 Lux

(1)

2.3.4 Lumens/watt

(1)

2.3.5 Lumen-second

(1)

2.3.6 Lux-second

(1)

2.3.7 Inverse square law

(1)

2.3.8 Lamberts cosine law

(1)

2.4 Source spectra

(1)

2.4.1 Spectral power distribution

(1)

2.4.2 Colour temperature

(1)

2.4.3 Reflectors

(1)

2.5 Types of lighting

(14)

2.5.1 Sunlight/daylight

(1)

2.5.2 Tungsten filament lamps

(1)

2.5.3 Tungsten halogen lamps

(1)

2.5.4 Arc sources - gas discharge lamps

(1)

2.5.5 Expendable flash bulbs

(1)

2.5.6 Electronic flash

(1)

2.5.7 Argon bombs

(1)

2.5.8 Spark light sources

(2)

2.5.9 X-ray sources

(5)

2.5.10 Lasers

(2)

2.5.11 Super radiant light sources

(1)

2.6 Light source safety considerations

(2)

Acknowledgements

(1)

References

(1)

Bibliography

(1)

3 Synchronization and triggering

(20)

Peter W. W. Fuller

3.1 Introduction

(1)

3.2 Timing

(2)

3.2.1 Timing requirements

(1)

3.2.2 Jitter

(1)

3.3 Synchronization requirements for various situations

(1)

3.3.1 Manual synchronization

(1)

3.3.2 Automatic synchronization

(1)

3.4 Light source synchronization

(1)

3.4.1 Spark or flash photography

(1)

3.4.2 Flash or cine X-ray

(1)

3.4.3 Stroboscopic flash

(1)

3.4.4 Long duration flash or continuous lighting

(1)

3.5 Camera synchronization

(2)

3.5.1 Mechanical cameras

(1)

3.5.2 Electronic and video cameras

(1)

3.6 Shutter synchronization

(1)

3.6.1 Capping shutters and external shutters

(1)

3.6.2 Ultra-fast shutters

(1)

3.6.3 The magneto-optic or Faraday shutter

(1)

3.6.4 Electro-optic cell or Kerr cell

(1)

3.7 Triggering and detection methods

(5)

3.7.1 Historic triggering systems

(1)

3.7.2 The trigger sequence

(1)

3.7.3 Detection methods

(1)

3.7.4 Make and break switches

(1)

3.7.5 Detection of increased object radiation

(2)

3.7.6 Beam decrease detection

(1)

3.7.7 Sound detectors

(1)

3.7.8 Pressure switches

(2)

3.7.9 Electric or magnetic field detectors

(1)

3.8 Trigger signal transmission and delay methods

(3)

3.8.1 Transmission methods

(1)

3.8.2 Interference with trigger signals

(1)

3.8.3 Triggering delay methods

(1)

3.8.4 Mechanical delays

(1)

3.8.5 Electrical/electronic delays

(1)

3.8.6 Delays for straight line movement

(1)

3.8.7 The up-down counter delay

(1)

3.9 Triggering on a budget

(3)

3.9.1 Simple mechanical switches and actuators

(1)

3.9.2 Sound triggers

(1)

3.9.3 Light triggers

(2)

3.9.4 Opto-couplers

(1)

3.9.5 LASCRs

(1)

3.9.6 Electronic delays

(1)

3.9.7 Safety

(1)

3.10 Summary

(1)

References

(1)

4 High speed cine systems

(13)

John T. Rendell

Joseph Honour

4.1 Introduction

(1)

4.2 Single pictures

(1)

4.3 High speed cine systems

(10)

4.3.1 Intermittent action type (25-500 pps)

(5)

4.3.2 Rotating prism systems (100-40 000 pps)

(5)

4.4 Drum and rotating mirror cameras (10 000-25 million pps)

(1)

4.5 Electronic cine camera systems

(2)

4.5.1 Introduction

(1)

4.5.2 Image converter systems

(2)

4.5.3 X-ray imaging systems

(1)

4.5.4 Recent developments

(1)

References

(1)

5 High speed CCD camera technology

(18)

Graham W. Smith

5.1 Introduction

(1)

5.2 Basic structure of a CCD

(3)

5.2.1 The CCD imager

(1)

5.2.2 Basic array types

(1)

5.2.3 Interlacing factors

(1)

5.3 High speed readout three-phase frame transfer array CCDs

(4)

5.3.1 Parallel transfer through the image system

(1)

5.3.2 Serial transfer

(1)

5.3.3 Output amplifier dynamics

(1)

5.3.4 Power dissipation

(1)

5.3.5 Practical TV device parameters

(1)

5.3.6 Specialized fast readout full frame 512 x 512 CCD imager

(1)

5.4 Classical CCD cameras

(7)

5.4.1 Solutions to image blur

(1)

5.4.2 Electronic shuttering

(1)

5.4.3 Specialized CCD cameras

(1)

5.4.4 The asynchronous camera

(3)

5.4.5 The immediate readout camera

(1)

5.4.6 Specialized high speed CCD readout camera system

(2)

5.5 Radiation factors relating to CCD structures

(2)

5.5.1 CCD radiation susceptibility parameters

(1)

5.6 Future aspirations of CCD technology in the high speed camera arena

(1)

Acknowledgements

(1)

References

(1)

6 High speed videography

(25)

Kris Balch

6.1 History of videography

(2)

6.1.1 Introduction

(1)

6.1.2 Origins and classification

(2)

6.1.3 Why use high speed video?

101

(1)

6.2 Fundamental technology

101

(5)

6.2.1 Imaging devices

101

(1)

6.2.2 Signal processing

102

(1)

6.2.3 Digital image storage

103

(2)

6.2.4 Display and playback

105

(1)

6.2.5 Analysis

105

(1)

6.3 Determining what is required

106

(6)

6.3.1 Framing rate

106

(1)

6.3.2 Recording time

107

(1)

6.3.3 Time magnification

107

(1)

6.3.4 Exposure

107

(1)

6.3.5 Exposure time

108

(2)

6.3.6 Sensitivity

110

(1)

6.3.7 Depth of field

110

(1)

6.3.8 Image sensor dimensions

110

(1)

6.3.9 Recording modes

110

(2)

6.4 Colour considerations

112

(1)

6.4.1 Colour temperature

112

(1)

6.4.2 Colour versus monochrome

112

(1)

6.5 Lenses and optics

113

(1)

6.6 Lighting

114

(2)

6.6.1 Fundamental lighting techniques

114

(1)

6.6.2 Light source characteristics

114

(1)

6.6.3 Estimate of lighting requirements

114

(1)

6.6.4 Types of lighting

115

(1)

6.7 Synchronization

116

(1)

6.8 Field of view

116

(1)

6.9 Time stamping

117

(1)

6.10 High speed video equipment for motion analysis

117

(4)

6.10.1 Kodak EKTAPRO Hi-Spec Motion Analyser

118

(1)

6.10.2 Kodak EKTAPRO Motion Analyser (Model 1000HRC)

118

(1)

6.10.3 Kodak EKTAPRO HS Motion Analyser (Model 4540)

118

(1)

6.10.4 Kodak EKTAPRO RO Imager

119

(1)

6.10.5 Kodak EKTAPRO Motion Analyser (Model 1000HRC IS)

119

(1)

6.10.6 Kodak Video QC

119

(1)

6.10.7 Kodak EKTAPRO Intensified Imager (Model SI)

119

(1)

6.10.8 Kodak MEGAPLUS Camera (Model ES 1.0)

119

(1)

6.10.9 NAC HIGH SPEED VIDEO Motion Analyser (Model HSV-500)

120

(1)

6.10.10 NAC HIGH SPEED VIDEO Motion Analyser (Model HSV-1000)

120

(1)

6.10.11 NAC Memrecam Motion Analyser (Model Ci)

120

(1)

6.10.12 NAC Memrecam Motion Analyser (Model CCS)

120

(1)

6.10.13 Image Express Workstation (Model 100)

120

(1)

6.11 Setting up an application for motion analysis

121

(1)

6.11.1 Defining the problem

121

(1)

6.11.2 Can motion analysis help solve the problem?

121

(1)

6.11.3 Defining measurable and observable parameters for analysis

121

(1)

6.11.4 Identifying environmental constraints and equipment requirements

121

(1)

6.12 Analysing the data

121

(1)

6.13 Beyond the year 2000

122

(1)

Acknowledgements

123

(1)

7 Smear and streak photography

124

(10)

Hallock F. Swift

7.1 Introduction

124

(1)

7.2 Smear photography

124

(2)

7.3 Streak photography

126

(3)

7.3.1 Cross slit photography

126

(1)

7.3.2 Parallel slit photography

127

(2)

7.4 Camera designs and their capabilities

129

(2)

7.4.1 Resolution and timing

129

(1)

7.4.2 Reel-to-reel cameras

129

(1)

7.4.3 Film-in-a-box cameras

130

(1)

7.4.4 Rotating drum cameras

130

(1)

7.4.5 Rotating mirror cameras

130

(1)

7.5 Electronic camera technology

131

(1)

7.6 Digital streak cameras

131

(1)

Acknowledgements

131

(3)

8 Electro-optical camera systems

134

(16)

Joseph Honour

8.1 Introduction

134

(2)

8.2 Image tubes

136

(1)

8.3 Photocathodes

136

(1)

8.4 Phosphor screens

137

(1)

8.5 The Imacon camera series

138

(1)

8.6 Recording methods

138

(2)

8.7 The X-Chron 540 camera

140

(1)

8.8 Streak recording

141

(1)

8.9 Cine X-ray systems

141

(1)

8.10 Ultra-fast electronic streak cameras

142

(1)

8.11 High gain image intensifiers

143

(1)

8.12 Single frame electronic cameras

144

(1)

8.13 CCD technology for high speed cameras

145

(2)

8.14 Camera control

147

(1)

8.15 Lighting for electro-optical cameras

147

(2)

References

149

(1)

9 Pulsed lasers in high speed imaging

150

(17)

Keith Errey

9.1 Introduction

150

(1)

9.2 What is a laser?

150

(1)

9.3 General laser components and types of laser

151

(7)

9.3.1 Solid state lasers

151

(2)

9.3.2 Gas lasers

153

(3)

9.3.3 Liquid lasers

156

(2)

9.4 Pulsed lasers

158

(2)

9.4.1 Inherently pulsed lasers

158

(1)

9.4.2 Pulsed output from argon ion lasers

158

(1)

9.4.3 Pulsed output from Nd: YAG lasers - Q-switching

159

(1)

9.5 Quasi-pulsed CW systems compared to inherently pulsed systems: argon ion laser versus copper vapour laser

160

(1)

9.6 Why use lasers?

160

(2)

9.6.1 Very short pulse durations and high pulse powers

161

(1)

9.6.2 Low divergence output (high beam quality)

161

(1)

9.6.3 High pulse repetition frequency

162

(1)

9.6.4 Advantages of laser sources

162

(1)

9.6.5 Disadvantages of laser sources

162

(1)

9.7 Applications of lasers

162

(1)

9.8 Safety

163

(1)

References

163

(4)

10 Rotating mirror and drum cameras

167

(14)

Vance Parker

Christine Roberts

10.1 Introduction

167

(1)

10.2 Camera types

167

(1)

10.2.1 Rotating mirror cameras

167

(1)

10.2.2 Drum cameras

167

(1)

10.3 Rotating mirror cameras

167

(3)

10.3.1 High speed rotating mirrors

167

(1)

10.3.2 The Miller principle

168

(1)

10.3.3 The lens bank of the framing camera

169

(1)

10.3.4 Image drag

169

(1)

10.3.5 Framing camera exposure and interframe time

169

(1)

10.3.6 Framing camera resolution

170

(1)

10.3.7 Some general parameters of framing cameras

170

(1)

10.4 Rotating mirror streak cameras

170

(2)

10.4.1 Writing rate non-linearity

171

(1)

10.4.2 Streak drum cameras

171

(1)

10.4.3 Streak camera exposure time and time resolution

171

(1)

10.4.4 Selecting the streak writing rate

172

(1)

10.5 Camera operation

172

(2)

10.5.1 Operating rotating mirror and drum cameras

172

(1)

10.5.2 Operating synchronous rotating mirror cameras

172

(1)

10.5.3 Control parameters

173

(1)

10.5.4 Operating a continuous access camera

173

(1)

10.5.5 Exposure requirements

173

(1)

10.5.6 Light sources

174

(1)

10.6 Synchroballistic recording

174

(1)

10.7 Multi-camera coincidence using synchronous cameras

174

(3)

10.7.1 Multi-camera coincidence

174

(1)

10.7.2 Information necessary to set up a multi-camera coincidence

175

(1)

10.7.3 The layout of a timing graph

175

(1)

10.7.4 Estimating time to coincidence

176

(1)

10.8 Using coherent lighting with rotating mirror cameras

177

(1)

10.8.1 Front lighting

177

(1)

10.8.2 Backlighting

177

(1)

10.8.3 Guidelines for using a pulsed laser to record framing pictures using a streak camera

177

(1)

10.8.4 Setting the laser pulse frequency

177

(1)

10.8.5 Guidelines for using a pulsed laser with a rotating mirror framing camera

178

(1)

10.8.6 Exposure and laser power calculations

178

(1)

10.9 Shadowgraph objective system design

178

(3)

10.9.1 Design for a framing camera

178

(1)

10.9.2 Design for a streak camera

179

(2)

11 Data extraction and film analysis

181

(4)

Christopher Edwards

11.1 Introduction

181

(1)

11.2 Sources of data and equipment

181

(1)

11.3 Source materials

181

(1)

11.4 Data extraction

182

(1)

11.5 Software

183

(1)

11.6 Conclusions

183

(2)

12 High speed photography of insects in free flight

185

(3)

John Brackenbury

12.1 Introduction

185

(1)

12.2 Technical considerations

186

(1)

12.2.1 Exposure response time

186

(1)

12.2.2 Exposure duration

187

(1)

12.2.3 Performance evaluation

187

(1)

References

187

(1)

Bibliography

187

(1)

13 Project design and planning

188

(17)

Peter W. W. Fuller

13.1 Introduction

188

(1)

13.2 Guidelines for project planning

188

(3)

13.2.1 Guidelines

188

(1)

13.2.2 Safety

189

(2)

13.3 The cycle of planning philosophy

191

(1)

13.4 Factors directly affected by required results

191

(4)

13.4.1 Method of analysis

192

(1)

13.4.2 Framing rate and exposure time

192

(1)

13.4.3 Spatial and temporal resolution

192

(2)

13.4.4 Classes of recording

194

(1)

13.4.5 What will be recorded?

194

(1)

13.4.6 Camera record calibration

195

(1)

13.5 Planning the project

195

(4)

13.5.1 Characteristics and preparation of the event or subject

195

(1)

13.5.2 Event or subject location

196

(1)

13.5.3 References marks and scales

196

(1)

13.5.4 Power supplies

197

(1)

13.5.5 Environmental considerations

198

(1)

13.5.6 Camera positioning and set-up

198

(1)

13.6 General camera considerations

199

(1)

13.6.1 Camera features

199

(1)

13.6.2 Factors affecting camera choice

199

(1)

13.7 Lighting

200

(2)

13.7.1 Intensity

200

(1)

13.7.2 Basic lighting principles

201

(1)

13.7.3 Types of light source

201

(1)

13.8 Film processing

202

(1)

13.8.1 General points

202

(1)

13.8.2 The later phases

203

(1)

13.9 General aspects of good practice

203

(2)

14 High speed photography in ballistics

205

(28)

Peter W. W. Fuller

14.1 General introduction

205

(2)

14.1.1 Historical development

205

(2)

14.2 Application areas

207

(2)

14.2.1 Introduction

207

(1)

14.2.2 Two forms of basic studies

208

(1)

14.2.3 Five main areas of interest

208

(1)

14.3 Equipment for ballistics photography

209

(12)

14.3.1 Lighting requirements

209

(1)

14.3.2 Light sources

209

(2)

14.3.3 Photographic recording devices

211

(3)

14.3.4 High speed still photography

214

(1)

14.3.5 Special techniques

215

(6)

14.4 Flow visualization

221

(1)

14.5 Synchronization and triggering

221

(1)

14.6 Specific applications

221

(9)

14.6.1 Interior ballistics

222

(1)

14.6.2 Intermediate ballistics

223

(1)

14.6.3 External ballistics

224

(2)

14.6.4 Terminal ballistics

226

(2)

14.6.5 Dynamic processes

228

(2)

14.7 Summary

230

(1)

References

230

(1)

Bibliography

231

(2)

15 High speed photography in detonics and ballistics

233

(12)

Manfred Held

15.1 Introduction

233

(1)

15.2 Radiation sources

233

(1)

15.3 High speed shutters

234

(1)

15.4 Framing cameras

234

(2)

15.5 Streak cameras

236

(2)

15.6 Streak techniques

238

(1)

15.7 Simultaneous streak and framing records

238

(1)

15.8 Computer analysis of streak records

239

(1)

15.9 Recommendations

240

(1)

15.10 Flash radiography in ballistics

240

(2)

15.10.1 Introduction

240

(1)

15.10.2 Flash X-ray equipment

241

(1)

15.11 Applications in ballistics

242

(1)

References

243

(1)

Bibliography

243

(2)

16 Shock waves from explosions

245

(9)

John M. Dewey

16.1 Introduction

245

(1)

16.1.1 Explosions

245

(1)

16.1.2 Refractive image methods

245

(1)

16.2 Small scale explosions

245

(1)

16.2.1 Laboratory methods

245

(1)

16.2.2 Camera systems

246

(1)

16.2.3 Photographic materials

246

(1)

16.3 Large scale explosions

246

(3)

16.3.1 Visualization

246

(2)

16.3.2 Cameras and timing

248

(1)

16.4 Small scale underwater blasts

249

(1)

16.5 Interpretation of refractive images

249

(1)

16.6 Particle tracer methods

250

(1)

16.7 Analysis of photogrammetric results

250

(3)

References

253

(1)

17 Flow visualization

254

(27)

Peter W. W. Fuller

17.1 Introduction

254

(1)

17.2 Methods of flow visualization

254

(1)

17.2.1 Density changes

254

(1)

17.2.2 Flow tracers or particles

254

(1)

17.2.3 Added energy

254

(1)

17.3 Early flow Studies

254

(2)

17.4 Techniques and methods

256

(1)

17.4.1 Effects involved with changes in density

256

(1)

17.4.2 Velocity of light and refractive index

256

(1)

17.4.3 Three main methods of visualization

256

(1)

17.5 The shadowgraph

257

(5)

17.5.1 Simple shadowgraph

257

(1)

17.5.2 Principle of operation

257

(1)

17.5.3 Disadvantages of the direct shadowgraph

258

(1)

17.5.4 Collimated beam shadowgraph

259

(1)

17.5.5 Focused collimated beam

259

(1)

17.5.6 Camera recorded shadowgraph

259

(1)

17.5.7 Retroreflective screen shadowgraph

259

(1)

17.5.8 Multiple exposure shadowgraph

260

(1)

17.5.9 Shadowgraph source size

260

(2)

17.6 Schlieren systems

262

(4)

17.6.1 Basic principles

262

(1)

17.6.2 The double lens system

262

(1)

17.6.3 Sensitivity and working range

263

(1)

17.6.4 Alternatives to the plain Toepler knife edge

263

(2)

17.6.5 Practical considerations of schlieren

265

(1)

17.6.6 Variations on schlieren layouts

265

(1)

17.6.7 Schlieren photography

266

(1)

17.7 The interferometer system

266

(4)

17.7.1 The Mach-Zehnder interferometer

266

(1)

17.7.2 Working principle of the MZI

266

(4)

17.8 Light sources for schlieren, shadowgraph and MZI

270

(1)

17.8.1 Continuous light sources

270

(1)

17.