Hazardous Wastes: Sources, Pathways, Receptors: Richard J. Watts (Washington State Univ. ): 9780471002383: Book: Science: eCampus.com

A fundamental approach to the scientific principles of hazardous waste management and engineering, with the study of both currently-generated hazardous wastes and the assessment and characterization of contaminated sites.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

(46)

1.1 Preregulatory Disposal of Hazardous Wastes

(11)

1.1.1 Past Disposal Practices

(6)

1.1.2 Case Histories

(1)

1.1.3 The Magnitude of the Problem

(4)

1.2 Hazardous Waste Legislation

(17)

1.2.1 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments

(10)

1.2.2 Underground Storage Tank Legislation

(1)

1.2.3 The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act and the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act

(3)

1.2.4 The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act

(1)

1.2.5 The Clean Water Act

(1)

1.2.6 The Toxic Substances Control Act

(1)

1.2.7 The Safe Drinking Water Act

(1)

1.2.8 The Clean Air Act

(1)

1.2.9 The Federal Pollution Prevention Act of 1990

(1)

1.2.10 State and Local Legislation

(1)

1.2.11 Hazardous Wastes, Hazardous Materials, Hazardous Substances

(1)

1.3 Current Hazardous Waste Generation and Management

(4)

1.4 The Nature of Hazardous Waste Management, Assessment, and Control

(4)

1.5 Source-Pathway-Receptor Analysis

(3)

1.6 Summary of Important Points and Concepts

(6)

PART ONE: SOURCES

(206)

CHAPTER 2: COMMON HAZARDOUS WASTES: NOMENCLATURE, INDUSTRIAL USES, DISPOSAL HISTORIES

(107)

2.1 Introduction to Organic Chemistry

(29)

2.1.1 Carbon Bonding

(3)

2.1.2 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

(25)

2.2 Petroleum

(4)

2.3 Nonhalogenated Solvents

(4)

2.3.1 Hydrocarbons

(1)

2.3.2 Ketones

(2)

2.3.3 Alcohols and Esters

(1)

2.4 Halogenated Solvents

(5)

2.4.1 Nomenclature of Aliphatic Halocarbons

(1)

2.4.2 Uses and Disposal of Common Halogenated Solvents

(2)

2.5 Pesticides

(14)

2.5.1 Insecticides

(6)

2.5.2 Herbicides

(5)

2.5.3 Fungicides

102

(2)

2.5.4 Soil Fumigants

104

(1)

2.6 Explosives

104

(5)

2.6.1 Aliphatic Nitrate Esters

107

(1)

2.6.2 Nitramines

107

(2)

2.6.3 Primary Explosives

109

(1)

2.7 Industrial Intermediates

109

(5)

2.8 Polychlorinated Biphenyls

114

(2)

2.9 Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins and Dibenzofurans

116

(3)

2.10 Metals and Inorganic Nonmetals

119

(8)

2.10.1 Arsenic (As)

120

(2)

2.10.2 Cadmium (Cd)

122

(1)

2.10.3 Chromium (Cr)

122

(1)

2.10.4 Lead (Pb)

123

(1)

2.10.5 Nickel (Ni)

124

(1)

2.10.6 Mercury (Hg)

124

(1)

2.10.7 Cyanides

125

(1)

2.10.8 Asbestos

126

(1)

2.11 Nuclear Wastes

127

(12)

2.12 Information Sources on Contaminant Nomenclature, Structure, and Properties

139

(2)

2.13 Summary of Important Points and Concepts

141

(14)

CHAPTER 3: COMMON HAZARDOUS WASTES: PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION

155

(57)

3.1 Common Concentration Units

155

(5)

3.2 Water Solubility

160

(7)

3.3 Density and Specific Gravity

167

(3)

3.4 Light and Dense Nonaqueous Phase Liquids

170

(7)

3.5 Flammability Limits

177

(5)

3.6 Flash Point and Ignition Temperature

182

(2)

3.7 Chemical Incompatibility

184

(7)

3.8 Labels and Placards

191

(7)

3.9 Chemical Abstract Service Registry Numbers

198

(4)

3.10 Priority Pollutants

202

(1)

3.11 Supplemental Data on Contaminant Properties

202

(2)

3.12 Summary of Important Points and Concepts

204

(8)

CHAPTER 4: SOURCE ANALYSIS

212

(41)

4.1 Materials Balances and Waste Audits

212

(4)

4.2 Hazardous Waste Site Assessments

216

(2)

4.3 Estimation of Source Concentrations for Hazardous Material Spills

218

(1)

4.4 Source Sampling

219

(10)

4.5 Source Sampling Procedures and Strategies

229

(3)

4.5.1 Sampling Devices

229

(2)

4.5.2 Sampling Strategies

231

(1)

4.6 Sampling away from the Source

232

(9)

4.6.1 Sampling and Monitoring of Air and Volatile Emissions

233

(2)

4.6.2 Groundwater Sampling

235

(6)

4.7 Priority Pollutant and Sample Analyses

241

(2)

4.8 Summary of Important Points and Concepts

243

(10)

PART TWO: PATHWAYS

253

(192)

CHAPTER 5: PARTITIONING, SORPTION, AND EXCHANGE AT SURFACES

254

(50)

5.1 Sorption Theory

255

(3)

5.2 The Governing Variables: Sorbent Characteristics, Contaminant Hydrophobicity, and the Solvent

258

(1)

5.3 Properties of Soils and Other Sorbents

258

(9)

5.4 Sorption Isotherms

267

(4)

5.5 The Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient

271

(1)

5.6 The Soil Adsorption Coefficient and the Soil Distribution Coefficient

272

(8)

5.7 The Retardation Factor

280

(2)

5.8 Reactions of Metals in Soils and Solids

282

(5)

5.9 Synopsis of the Partitioning Behavior of Important Hazardous Metals

287

(2)

5.10 Estimation of Partitioning and Potential Mobility of Metals

289

(5)

5.11 Summary of Important Points and Concepts

294

(10)

CHAPTER 6: VOLATILIZATION

304

(29)

6.1 The Governing Variables: Vapor Pressure and Henry's Law

304

(2)

6.2 Volatilization from Open Containers

306

(10)

6.2.1 Volatilization Fluxes across Liquid Surfaces

311

(3)

6.2.2 Saturation Concentration in an Enclosed Area

314

(2)

6.3 Volatilization from Soils

316

(11)

6.3.1 Environmental and Chemical Properties Affecting Volatilization from Soils

316

(3)

6.3.2 Volatilization from Soil Surfaces

319

(3)

6.3.3 Volatilization from Deep Soil Contamination

322

(5)

6.4 Volatilization of Metals and Inorganic Nonmetals

327

(1)

6.5 Summary of Important Points and Concepts

328

(5)

CHAPTER 7: ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC TRANSFORMATIONS

333

(72)

7.1 The Governing Variables: Chemical Structure, Presence of Reactive Species, and Availability

335

(7)

7.1.1 Chemical Structure: The Basis for Reactivity in Abiotic and Biotic Transformations

335

(2)

7.1.2 Presence of Transforming Species

337

(1)

7.1.3 Sorption and NAPLs: Inaccessibility to Transformation Processes

338

(1)

7.1.4 Other Variables Affecting Transformation Processes

339

(3)

7.2 Rates of Transformation

342

(4)

7.3 Abiotic Transformations

346

(20)

7.3.1 Nucleophilic Substitution and Hydrolysis

346

(6)

7.3.2 Elimination Reactions

352

(1)

7.3.3 Oxidation

352

(10)

7.3.4 Reduction

362

(4)

7.3.5 Photochemical Reactions

366

(1)

7.4 Biotic Transformations

366

(20)

7.4.1 Important Organisms in Hazardous Waste Systems

367

(3)

7.4.2 Fundamentals of Microbial Growth and Metabolism

370

(7)

7.4.3 Biodegradation Reactions and Pathways of Hazardous Contaminants

377

(9)

7.5 Common Themes and Perspectives in Abiotic and Biotic Transformations

386

(3)

7.6 Measurement of Transformation Rates

389

(3)

7.7 Summary of Important Points and Concepts

392

(13)

CHAPTER 8: CONTAMINANT RELEASE AND TRANSPORT FROM THE SOURCE

405

(41)

8.1 The Controlling Processes in Contaminant Release and Transport: Sorption, Volatilization, Transformation

405

(3)

8.2 Mass Transfer of Contaminants in the Atmosphere and the Subsurface

408

(5)

8.3 Atmospheric Transport Following Volatilization Releases

413

(8)

8.3.1 Development and Use of Fundamental Atmospheric Dispersion Models

414

(7)

8.4 Subsurface Transport of Contaminants

421

(16)

8.4.1 Development and Use of Groundwater Transport Equations

425

(11)

8.4.2 Contaminant Transport in the Vadose Zone

436

(1)

8.5 Summary of Important Points and Concepts

437

(8)

PART THREE: RECEPTORS

445

(100)

CHAPTER 9: CONCEPTS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE TOXICOLOGY

446

(41)

9.1 Overview of Toxicological Mechanisms

446

(1)

9.2 Fundamentals of Mammalian Physiology

447

(9)

9.2.1 The Skin

448

(1)

9.2.2 The Respiratory System

449

(1)

9.2.3 The Digestive System

450

(2)

9.2.4 The Circulatory System

452

(1)

9.2.5 The Liver

453

(2)

9.2.6 The Kidneys

455

(1)

9.3 Concepts and Mechanisms of Toxicity

456

(11)

9.3.1 Routes of Exposure and Absorption

457

(2)

9.3.2 Distribution and Storage

459

(1)

9.3.3 Bioactivation

460

(5)

9.3.4 Structural Affinity and Toxic Effects

465

(2)

9.4 Carcinogenicity

467

(7)

9.4.1 Mutagenicity

467

(2)

9.4.2 Chemical Carcinogens

469

(2)

9.4.3 Mechanisms of Carcinogenicity

471

(2)

9.4.4 Classes of Chemical Carcinogens

473

(1)

9.5 Toxic Responses of Common Hazardous Chemicals

474

(7)

9.6 Summary of Important Points and Concepts

481

(6)

CHAPTER 10: QUANTITATIVE TOXICOLOGY

487

(31)

10.1 Classification of Toxic Responses

487

(2)

10.2 Acute Toxicity: The LD(50)

489

(5)

10.3 Quantitative Evaluation of Acute Toxicity

494

(7)

10.4 Chronic Industrial Exposure: The Threshold Limit Value

501

(4)

10.5 Maximum Contaminant Levels

505

(3)

10.6 Quantifying the Chronic Toxicity of Noncarcinogens

508

(2)

10.7 Dose-Response Relationships for Carcinogens

510

(2)

10.8 Sources of Toxicity Information

512

(1)

10.9 Summary of Important Points and Concepts

513

(5)

CHAPTER 11: HAZARDOUS WASTE RISK ASSESSMENT

518

(27)

11.1 Principles, Definitions, and Perspectives of Hazardous Waste Risk Assessments

521

(1)

11.2 The Risk Assessment Process

522

(9)

11.2.1 Hazard Identification

522

(3)

11.2.2 Exposure Assessment

525

(4)

11.2.3 Toxicity Assessment and Risk Characterization

529

(2)

11.3 Ecological Risk Assessments

531

(3)

11.3.1 Hazard Assessment

531

(1)

11.3.2 Exposure Assessment

532

(1)

11.3.3 Toxicity Assessment and Risk Characterization

532

(2)

11.4 Sources of Uncertainties in Risk Assessment

534

(2)

11.5 Risk Management and Risk Communication

536

(1)

11.6 Summary of Important Points and Concepts

537

(8)

PART FOUR: MANAGEMENT AND DESIGN APPLICATIONS

545

(91)

CHAPTER 12: APPROACHES TO HAZARDOUS WASTE MINIMIZATION, REMEDIATION, TREATMENT, AND DISPOSAL

546

(42)

12.1 Concepts of Waste Minimization and Pollution Prevention

547

(4)

12.2 Concepts in Hazardous Waste Remediation and Treatment

551

(6)

12.3 Reactor Analysis Applied to Hazardous Waste Systems

557

(3)

12.4 Classification of Remediation and Treatment Processes

560

(18)

12.4.1 Sorption Processes

560

(4)

12.4.2 Volatilization Processes

564

(3)

12.4.3 Abiotic Transformation Processes

567

(5)

12.4.4 Biotic Processes

572

(2)

12.4.5 Bioventing

574

(1)

12.4.6 Landfarming

575

(1)

12.4.7 Thermal Processes--Incineration

575

(3)

12.5 Ultimate Disposal--Hazardous Waste Landfills

578

(3)

12.6 Summary of Important Points and Concepts

581

(7)

CHAPTER 13: DESIGN OF SELECTED PATHWAY APPLICATIONS

588

(48)

13.1 Sorption Design Application: Granular Activated Carbon

588

(11)

13.1.1 Granular Activated Carbon Design Procedures

591

(8)

13.2 Volatilization Design Application: Air Stripping

599

(16)

13.3 Abiotic Transformation Design Application: Soil Remediation Using Fenton's Reagent

615

(5)

13.4 Biotic Transformation Design Application: Ex Situ Slurry Bioreactor

620

(7)

13.5 Summary of Important Points and Concepts

627

(9)

APPENDICES

636

(95)

Appendix A RCRA Waste Lists

636

(23)

Appendix B Water Solubilities of Common Hazardous Compounds

659

(10)

Appendix C Specific Gravities of Common Hazardous Compounds

669

(9)

Appendix D Supplementary Chemical Incompatibility Data

678

(2)

Appendix E Values for Student's t Distribution

680

(2)

Appendix F Random Numbers

682

(2)

Appendix G Log Kow of Common Hazardous Compounds

684

(10)

Appendix H Estimation of Octanol-Water Partition Coefficients

694

(7)

Appendix I Measured K(oc) Values of Some Common Hazardous Compounds

701

(4)

Appendix J Vapor Pressures and Henry's Law Constants for Common Hazardous Compounds

705

(9)

Appendix K Saturation Concentrations in Air and Heats of Vaporization for Some Common Hazardous Compounds

714

(4)

Appendix L Oral and Inhalation Slope Factors and RFDs

718

(13)

Appendix References

731

(10)

Index

741


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