Principles of Plasma Discharges and Materials Processing: Michael A. Lieberman; Allan J. Lichtenberg: 9780471005773: Book: : eCampus.com

Timely, authoritative, pedagogically consistent— a valuable professional resource and a superior didactic tool. Authored by two internationally respected pioneers in the field, this book offers a fully integrated, pedagogically consistent presentation of the fundamental physics and chemistry of partially ionized, chemically reactive, low-pressure plasmas and their roles in a wide range of plasma discharges and processes used in thin film processing applications—especially in the fabrication of integrated circuits. With many fully worked examples, practice exercises, and clear demonstrations of the relationship of plasma parameters to external control parameters and processing results, this book combines the best qualities of a student text and a professional resource.

In-depth coverage of the fundamentals of plasma physics and chemistry—includes separate chapters on atomic and molecular collisions
Applies basic theory to plasma discharges, including calculations of plasma parameters and scaling of plasma parameters with control parameters
Applies results to basic processing mechanisms and the effects of plasma parameters on those mechanisms

Uses numerous worked examples to demonstrate the relationships between control parameters, plasma parameters, and processing results

PREFACE

(4)

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

xix

(6)

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS

xxv

(1)

PRACTICAL FORMULAE

xxvi

1 INTRODUCTION

(24)

1.1 Materials Processing

(5)

1.2 Plasmas and Sheaths

(10)

Plasmas

(5)

Sheaths

(5)

1.3 Discharges

(7)

Rf Diodes

(3)

High-Density Sources

(4)

1.4 Symbols and Units

(2)

2 BASIC PLASMA EQUATIONS AND EQUILIBRIUM

(20)

2.1 Introduction

(1)

2.2 Field Equations, Current, and Voltage

(5)

Maxwell's Equations

(5)

2.3 The Conservation Equations

(6)

Boltzmann's Equations

(1)

Macroscopic Quantities

(1)

Particle Conservation

(1)

Momentum Conservation

(2)

Energy Conservation

(1)

Summary

(1)

2.4 Equilibrium Properties

(8)

Boltzmann's Relation

(1)

Debye Length

(2)

Quasineutrality

(3)

3 ATOMIC COLLISIONS

(40)

3.1 Basic Concepts

(6)

Elastic and Inelastic Collisions

(1)

Collision Parameters

(2)

Differential Scattering Cross Section

(3)

3.2 Collision Dynamics

(6)

Center-of-Mass Coordinates

(3)

Energy Transfer

(1)

Small-Angle Scattering

(2)

3.3 Elastic Scattering

(7)

Coulomb Collisions

(3)

Polarization Scattering

(4)

3.4 Inelastic Collisions

(13)

Atomic Energy Levels

(4)

Electric Dipole Radiation and Metastable Atoms

(3)

Electron Ionization Cross Section

(1)

Electron Excitation Cross Section

(1)

Ion-Atom Charge Transfer

(4)

Ion-Atom Ionization

(1)

3.5 Averaging Over Distributions and Surface Effects

(8)

Averaging Over a Maxwellian Distribution

(4)

Energy Loss per Electron-Ion Pair Created

(1)

Surface Effects

(3)

4 PLASMA DYNAMICS

(44)

4.1 Basic Motions

(6)

Motion in Constant Fields

(3)

E X B Drifts

(1)

Energy Conservation

(2)

4.2 Nonmagnetized Plasma Dynamics

(9)

Plasma Oscillations

(2)

Dielectric Constant and Conductivity

(3)

Ohmic Heating

(1)

Electromagnetic Waves

(1)

Electrostatic Waves

(2)

4.3 Guiding Center Motion

100

(7)

Parallel Force

101

(1)

Adiabatic Constancy of the Magnetic Moment

102

(1)

Drift Due to Motion Along Field Lines (Curvature Drift)

103

(1)

Drift Due to Gyration (Gradient Drift)

104

(1)

Polarization Drift

105

(2)

4.4 Dynamics of Magnetized Plasmas

107

(4)

Dielectric Tensor

108

(2)

The Wave Dispersion

110

(1)

4.5 Waves in Magnetized Plasmas

111

(9)

Principal Electron Waves

112

(3)

Principal Waves Including Ion Dynamics

115

(2)

The CMA Diagram

117

(3)

4.6 Wave Diagnostics

120

(9)

Interferometer

120

(2)

Cavity Perturbation

122

(2)

Wave Propagation

124

(5)

5 DIFFUSION AND TRANSPORT

129

(25)

5.1 Basic Relations

129

(3)

Diffusion and Mobility

129

(1)

Free Diffusion

130

(1)

Ambipolar Diffusion

131

(1)

5.2 Diffusion Solutions

132

(5)

One-Dimensional Time-Dependent Solution

132

(2)

One-Dimensional Steady-State Solution

134

(3)

5.3 Low-Pressure Solutions

137

(3)

Variable Mobility Model

137

(2)

Langmuir Solution

139

(1)

5.4 Diffusion Across a Magnetic Field

140

(6)

Ambipolar Diffusion

143

(3)

5.5 Magnetic Multipole Confinement

146

(8)

Magnetic Fields

146

(2)

Plasma Confinement

148

(2)

Leak Width w

150

(4)

6 DC SHEATHS

154

(37)

6.1 Basic Concepts and Equations

154

(3)

The Collisionless Sheath

156

(1)

6.2 The Bohm Sheath Criterion

157

(7)

Presheath Requirements

158

(2)

Sheath Potential at a Floating Wall

160

(4)

6.3 The High-Voltage Sheath

164

(2)

Matrix Sheath

164

(1)

Child Law Sheath

164

(2)

6.4 Generalized Criteria for Sheath Formation

166

(4)

Electronegative Gases

167

(3)

6.5 Collisional Sheath

170

(1)

6.6 Electrostatic Probe Diagnostics

171

(20)

Planar Probe With Collisionless Sheath

174

(1)

Non-Maxwellian Electrons

175

(3)

Cylindrical Probe With a Collisionless Sheath

178

(3)

Double Probes and Emissive Probes

181

(3)

Probes in Time-Varying Fields

184

(1)

Effect of Collisions and DC Magnetic Fields

185

(1)

Probe Construction and Circuits

186

(5)

7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUILIBRIUM

191

(26)

7.1 Introduction

191

(1)

7.2 Energy and Enthalpy

192

(7)

7.3 Entropy and Gibbs Free Energy

199

(6)

Gibbs Free Energy

203

(2)

7.4 Chemical Equilibrium

205

(5)

Pressure and Temperature Variations

208

(2)

7.5 Heterogeneous Equilibrium

210

(7)

Equilibrium Between Phases

210

(3)

Equilibrium at a Surface

213

(4)

8 MOLECULAR COLLISIONS

217

(48)

8.1 Introduction

217

(1)

8.2 Molecular Structure

218

(6)

Vibrational and Rotational Motion

219

(2)

Optical Emission

221

(3)

Negative Ions

224

(1)

8.3 Electron Collisions With Molecules

224

(10)

Dissociation

225

(2)

Dissociative Ionization

227

(1)

Dissociative Recombination

227

(1)

Example of Hydrogen

228

(1)

Dissociative Electron Attachment

229

(3)

Polar Dissociation

232

(1)

Metastable Negative Ions

232

(1)

Electron Impact Detachment

233

(1)

Vibrational and Rotational Excitations

233

(1)

Elastic Scattering

234

(1)

8.4 Heavy-Particle Collisions

234

(12)

Resonant and Nonresonant Charge Transfer

236

(2)

Positive-Negative Ion Recombination

238

(1)

Associative Detachment

239

(2)

Transfer of Excitation

241

(2)

Rearrangement of Chemical Bonds

243

(1)

Ion-Neutral Elastic Scattering

244

(1)

Three-Body Processes

245

(1)

8.5 Reaction Rates and Detailed Balancing

246

(8)

Temperature Dependence

247

(1)

The Principle of Detailed Balancing

248

(3)

A Data Set for Oxygen

251

(3)

8.6 Optical Emission and Actinometry

254

(11)

Optical Emission

256

(2)

Optical Actinometry

258

(1)

O Atom Actinometry

259

(6)

9 CHEMICAL KINETICS AND SURFACE PROCESSES

265

(36)

9.1 Elementary Reactions

265

(4)

Relation to Equilibrium Constant

268

(1)

9.2 Gas-Phase Kinetics

269

(10)

First-Order Consecutive Reactions

270

(3)

Opposing Reactions

273

(1)

Bimolecular Association With Photon Emission

274

(1)

Three-Body Association

275

(2)

Three-Body Positive-Negative Ion Recombination

277

(1)

Three-Body Electron-Ion Recombination

278

(1)

9.3 Surface Processes

279

(9)

Positive Ion Neutralization and Secondary Electron Emission

279

(4)

Adsorption and Desorption

283

(4)

Fragmentation

287

(1)

Sputtering

288

(1)

9.4 Surface Kinetics

288

(13)

Diffusion of Neutral Species

290

(1)

Rate Constant for Diffusion

290

(2)

Adsorption and Desorption

292

(1)

Dissociative Adsorption and Associative Desorption

293

(1)

Physical Adsorption

293

(1)

Reaction With a Surface

294

(1)

Reactions on a Surface

295

(6)

10 PARTICLE AND ENERGY BALANCE IN DISCHARGES

301

(26)

10.1 Introduction

301

(3)

10.2 Electropositive Plasma Equilibrium

304

(8)

Basic Properties

304

(2)

Uniform Density Discharge Model

306

(3)

Nonuniform Discharge Model

309

(3)

10.3 Electronegative Plasma Equilibrium

312

(15)

Ambipolar Diffusion

312

(2)

Oxygen Discharge

314

(1)

Uniform Density Model

315

(3)

Nonuniform Electronegative Equilibrium

318

(2)

Approximate Solutions

320

(3)

Simulation Results

323

(4)

11 CAPACITIVE DISCHARGES

327

(60)

11.1 Homogeneous Model

328

(11)

Plasma Admittance

330

(1)

Sheath Admittance

330

(4)

Particle and Energy Balance

334

(3)

Discharge Parameters

337

(2)

11.2 Inhomogeneous Model

339

(15)

Collisionless Sheath Dynamics

340

(2)

Child Law

342

(1)

Sheath Capacitance

343

(1)

Ohmic Heating

344

(1)

Stochastic Heating

345

(1)

Self-consistent Model Equations

346

(3)

Scaling

349

(1)

Collisional Sheaths

350

(2)

Low and Moderate Voltages

352

(1)

Ohmic Heating in the Sheath

353

(1)

Fast Sheath Heating

353

(1)

11.3 Experiments and Simulations

354

(14)

Experiments Results

354

(4)

Particle-in-Cell Simulations

358

(9)

Role of Secondaries

367

(1)

Implications for Modeling

368

(1)

11.4 Asymmetric Discharges

368

(5)

Capacitive Voltage Divider

368

(2)

Spherical Shell Model

370

(3)

11.5 Magnetically Enhanced Discharges

373

(5)

Theory

374

(3)

Experimental Results

377

(1)

11.6 Matching Networks and Power Measurements

378

(9)

Power Measurements

382

(5)

12 INDUCTIVE DISCHARGES

387

(25)

12.1 High-Density, Low-Pressure Discharges

388

(8)

Inductive Source Configurations

388

(2)

Power Absorption and Operating Regimes

390

(2)

Discharge Operation and Coupling

392

(2)

Capacitive Coupling

394

(1)

Matching Network

395

(1)

12.2 Other Operating Regimes

396

(3)

Low-Density Operation

396

(1)

Power Transfer Efficiency

397

(1)

High-Pressure Discharges

398

(1)

12.3 Planar Coil Configuration

399

(5)

12.4 Helical Resonator Discharges

404

(8)

13 WAVE-HEATED DISCHARGES

412

(38)

13.1 Electron Cyclotron Resonance Discharges

413

(21)

Characteristics and Configurations

413

(5)

Electron Heating

418

(4)

Resonant Wave Absorption

422

(6)

Model and Simulations

428

(1)

Plasma Expansion

429

(4)

Measurements

433

(1)

13.2 Helicon Discharges

434

(9)

Helicon Modes

435

(3)

Antenna Coupling

438

(3)

Helicon Mode Absorption

441

(2)

13.3 Surface Wave Discharges

443

(7)

Planar Surface Waves

443

(2)

Cylindrical Surface Waves

445

(1)

Power Balance

446

(4)

14 DC DISCHARGES

450

(22)

14.1 Qualitative Characteristics of Glow Discharges

450

(4)

Positive Column

451

(1)

Cathode Sheath

452

(1)

Negative Glow and Faraday Dark Space

452

(1)

Anode Fall

452

(2)

14.2 Analysis of the Positive Column

454

(3)

Calculation of T(e)

454

(1)

Calculation of E and n(o)

455

(2)

14.3 Analysis of the Cathode Sheath

457

(7)

Vacuum Breakdown

457

(4)

Cathode Sheath

461

(3)

14.4 The Negative Glow and Faraday Dark Space

464

(1)

14.5 Planar Magnetron Discharges

465

(7)

Limitations of Glow Discharge Sputtering Source

465

(1)

Magnetron Configuration

466

(1)

Discharge Model

467

(5)

15 ETCHING

472

(40)

15.1 Etch Requirements and Processes

472

(8)

Plasma Etch Requirements

473

(4)

Etch Processes

477

(3)

15.2 Etching Kinetics

480

(10)

Surface Kinetics

481

(4)

Discharge Kinetics

485

(4)

Chemical Framework

489

(1)

15.3 Halogen-Atom Etching of Silicon

490

(14)

Pure Chemical F-Atom Etching

490

(4)

Ion Energy-Driven F-Atom Etching

494

(3)

CF(4) Discharges

497

(4)

O(2) and H(2) Feedstock Additions

501

(2)

Cl-Atom Etching

503

(1)

15.4 Other Etch Systems

504

(8)

F and CF(x) Etching of SiO(2)

505

(1)

Si(3)N(4) Etching

506

(1)

Aluminum Etching

507

(1)

Resist Etching

508

(4)

16 DEPOSITION AND IMPLANTATION

512

(29)

16.1 Introduction

512

(2)

16.2 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition

514

(8)

Amorphous Silicon

515

(3)

Silicon Dioxide

518

(4)

Silicon Nitride

522

(1)

16.3 Sputter Deposition

522

(4)

Physical Sputtering

522

(3)

Reactive Sputtering

525

(1)

16.4 Plasma-Immersion Ion Implantation

526

(15)

Collisionless Sheath Model

528

(5)

Collisional Sheath Model

533

(3)

Applications of PIII to Materials Processing

536

(5)

A COLLISION DYNAMICS

541

(6)

Coulomb Cross Section

543

(4)

B THE COLLISION INTEGRAL AND KINETIC THEORY

547

(8)

Boltzmann Collision Integral

547

(1)

Maxwellian Distribution

548

(1)

The Krook Collision Operator

549

(1)

Kinetic Equations for Electrons

550

(1)

Diffusion and Mobility

551

(1)

Druyvesteyn Distribution

552

(1)

Electron Distribution in an Rf Field

553

(2)

C STOCHASTIC HEATING IN AN INDUCTIVE DISCHARGE

555

(4)

REFERENCES

559

(6)

INDEX

565

MICHAEL A. LIEBERMAN, PhD, is Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley, and Director of the Berkeley Electronics Research Laboratory. He has published more than 140 journal articles on the topics of plasmas, plasma processing, and nonlinear dynamics. He has also published, with Professor Lichtenberg, Regular and Stochastic Motion and Regular and Chaotic Dynamics, Second Edition. ALLAN J. LICHTENBERG, PhD, is Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley. A respected pioneer in the fields of high-temperature plasmas, plasma discharges, and nonlinear dynamics, Dr. Lichtenberg has written over 100 articles in these areas. In addition to the books coauthored with Professor Lieberman, he has written an earlier monograph Phase Space Dynamics of Particles.


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