Cengage Advantage Books: Voyage of Discovery A Historical Introduction to Philosophy

by Lawhead, William F.

• ISBN13: 9780495127796
• ISBN10: 0495127795
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2006-06-25
• Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing

Summary

Preface. Introduction: A Brief Tour Guide to Philosophy. Part I: THE ANCIENT PERIOD. 1. The Greek Cultural Context: From Poetry to Philosophy. 2. Greek Philosophy before Socrates. 3. The Sophists and Socrates. 4. Plato: The Search for Ultimate Truth and Reality. 5. Aristotle: Understanding the Natural World. 6. Classical Philosophy after Aristotle. Part II: THE MIDDLE AGES. 7. Cultural Context: The Development of Christian Thought. 8. St. Augustine: Philosophy in the Service of Faith. 9. Early Medieval Philosophy. 10. Philosophy and Theology in the 11th and 12th Centuries. 11. St. Thomas Aquinas: Aristotle's Philosophy and Christian Thought. 12. The Unraveling of the Medieval Synthesis. Part III: THE MODERN PERIOD. 13. Cultural Context: Renaissance, Reformation, and the Rise of Modern Science. 14. Early Empiricists: Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes. 15. Rene Descartes: Founder of Modern Philosophy. 16. Benedict (Baruch) Spinoza: Rationalist and Mystic. 17. Gottfried Leibniz: The Optimistic Rationalist. 18. Cultural Context: The Enlightenment and the Age of Newton. 19. John Locke: The Rise of Modern Empiricism. 20. George Berkeley: Following the Road of Empiricism. 21. David Hume: The Scottish Skeptic. 22. Immanuel Kant: Finding the Powers and Limits of the Mind. 23. The Nineteenth-Century Cultural Context: Romanticism, Science, and the Sense of History. 24. G.W.F. Hegel: Biographer of the World Spirit. 25. Karl Marx: A Philosophy of the Changing World. 26. Soren Kierkegaard: The Founder of Religious Existentialism. 27. Friedrich Nietzsche: The Founder of Secular Existentialism. 28. Nineteenth-Century Empiricism: Comte, Bentham, and Mill. Part IV: THE CONTEMPORARY PERIOD. 29. The Twentieth-Century Cultural Context: Science, Language, and Experience. 30. Pragmatism: The Unity of Thought and Action. 31. Analytic Philosophy and the Linguistic Turn. 32. Phemenology and Existentialism. 33. Recent Issues in Philosophy. Glossary. Index.

Table of Contents

Preface	xviii
Introduction: A Brief Tour Guide to Philosophy	1	(1)
Philosophy Is Not an Optional Experience in Your Life!	1	(3)
Philosophical Ideas in Unlikely Places	1	(2)
Why Ideas Are Like Colds	3	(1)
What Is Philosophy, Anyway?	4	(4)
Commonplace Notions of Philosophy	4	(1)
Philosophers and Lovers	5	(1)
Philosophical Criteria	5	(1)
Assessing Arguments	6	(2)
Becoming an Active Reader: Tactics and Strategies	8	(2)
Philosophy, Bike Riding, and Baseball Cards	8	(1)
A Strategy for Reading Philosophy	9	(1)
A General Map of the Terrain	10	(1)
Contemporary Connections: Introduction	11	(2)
PART I THE ANCIENT PERIOD	13	(114)
The Greek Cultural Context: From Poetry to Philosophy	15	(6)
The Role of the Poets	15	(3)
The Natural Order According to Homer	16	(1)
The Moral Ideal According to Homer	17	(1)
Conflicts Within Homer's Picture	17	(1)
The Birth of Western Philosophy	18	(1)
Contemporary Connections 1: The Philosophical Turn	19	(1)
Outline of Classical Philosophy	19	(2)
Greek Philosophy Before Socrates	21	(22)
The Milesian Philosophers	21	(1)
Thales	21	(2)
Thales' Question	21	(1)
Thales'Answer	22	(1)
The Problem of Change	22	(1)
Thales' Significance	22	(1)
Anaximander	23	(1)
Anaximander's Question	23	(1)
Anaximander's Answer	23	(1)
The Problem of Change	23	(1)
Anaximander's Significance	24	(1)
Anaximenes	24	(1)
Anaximenes' Question	24	(1)
Anaximenes' Answer	24	(1)
The Problem of Change	25	(1)
Anaximenes' Significance	25	(1)
Summary of the Milesians' Methods	25	(1)
Summary of the Milesians' Metaphysics	25	(1)
Pythagoras and His School	26	(1)
Pythagoras: Mathematician and Mystic	26	(1)
Philosophy and Salvation	26	(1)
Reality Is Mathematical	27	(1)
The Pythagoreans' Significance	27	(1)
Xenophanes	28	(1)
The Destroyer of Myths	28	(1)
Theory of Knowledge	28	(1)
Philosophy of Religion	29	(1)
Xenophanes' Significance	29	(1)
Heraclitus	30	(1)
The Lover of Paradoxes	30	(1)
Reason Is the Path to Knowledge	30	(1)
Reality as Change and Conflict	31	(1)
The Primacy of Change	31	(1)
The Unity of Opposites	31	(1)
Fire	32	(1)
Logos Again	32	(1)
Moral and Social Philosophy	32	(1)
Heraclitus's Significance	33	(1)
Parmenides And The Eleatics	33	(1)
Parmenides: The Rigorous Rationalist	33	(1)
Reality Is Unchanging	33	(2)
Reason Versus the Senses	35	(1)
Zeno of Elea: Coming to Parmenides' Defense	35	(1)
Evaluation and Significance of the Eleatics	36	(1)
The Pluralists	37	(1)
The Pluralists' Task	37	(1)
Empedocles (495-435 B.C.)	37	(1)
Anaxagoras (500-428 B.C.)	38	(1)
Evaluation of Anaxagoras	38	(1)
Democritus And The Atomists	39	(2)
Being	39	(1)
Becoming	39	(1)
The World of Appearances	39	(1)
Theory of Knowledge	39	(1)
Ethics	40	(1)
Significance of the Atomists	40	(1)
Summary of the Pre-Socratics	41	(1)
Contemporary Connections 2: The Pre-Socratics	41	(2)
The Sophists and Socrates	43	(17)
The Sophists	43	(1)
Skepticism and the Keys to Success	43	(4)
Protagoras	45	(1)
Gorgias	46	(1)
Antiphon	46	(1)
Evaluation and Significance of the Sophists	47	(1)
Socrates (470-399 B.C.)	47	(1)
Socrates on Trial	47	(2)
The Sources of Socrates' Thought	49	(1)
Socrates' Task: Exposing Ignorance	49	(1)
Socrates' Method	50	(2)
Socratic Questioning	50	(1)
Socrates' Method of Argument	51	(1)
Socrates' Theory of Knowledge	52	(1)
Socrates' Metaphysics	53	(1)
The Human Soul	53	(1)
Ethics and the Good Life	54	(2)
Virtue and Excellence	54	(1)
Knowing and Doing	55	(1)
Political Philosophy	56	(1)
Socrates'Legacy	57	(1)
Contemporary Connections 3: The Sophists and Socrates	58	(2)
Plato: The Search for Ultimate Truth and Reality	60	(24)
Plato's Life: From Student to University President	60	(1)
Plato's Task: Making Philosophy Comprehensive	61	(1)
Theory of Knowledge: Reason Versus Opinion	61	(6)
Rejection of Relativism	61	(1)
Rejection of Sense Experience	62	(1)
Knowledge Is Not True Belief	63	(1)
Universal Forms Are the Basis of Knowledge	64	(1)
Knowledge Comes Through Recollalion	65	(1)
Plato's Divided Line	65	(2)
Metaphysics: Shadows and Reality	67	(5)
The Reality of the Forms	67	(1)
The Problem of Change	67	(1)
The Relationship of Particulars to the Forms	68	(2)
The Allegory of the Cave	70	(2)
Moral Theory	72	(4)
Against Relativism	72	(1)
Why Be Moral?	73	(1)
Morality and Human Nature	74	(2)
Political Theory	76	(3)
The Three Divisions in Society	76	(2)
The Decline of the Ideal State	78	(1)
Plato's Cosmology: Purpose and Chance	79	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	80	(1)
Contemporary Connections 4: Plato	81	(3)
Aristotle: Understanding the Natural World	84	(21)
Aristotle's Life: Biologist, Tutor, and Philosopher	84	(1)
Plato and Aristotle	85	(2)
Theory of Knowledge: Finding Universals Within Particulars	87	(4)
Aristotle's Appeal to Experience	87	(1)
Language, Thought, and Reality	88	(1)
The Essential Categories	88	(1)
The Discovery of Logic	89	(1)
First Principles	90	(1)
Metaphysics: Understanding the Here-and-Now World	91	(5)
Critique of the Platonic Forms	91	(1)
Substance: The Key to Reality	92	(1)
Form and Matter	92	(1)
Potentiality and Actuality	93	(1)
Understanding Change	94	(1)
Teleology	95	(1)
God: The Unmoved Mover	95	(1)
Ethics: Keeping Things in Balance	96	(6)
Happiness	97	(2)
Virtue Is a State of Character	99	(1)
Virtue Is Concerned with Choice	99	(1)
Virtue and the Mean	100	(1)
Universal Principles and Relative Applications	100	(1)
The Mean Determined by Practical Wisdom	101	(1)
The Best Form of Life	102	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	102	(1)
Contemporary Connections 5: Aristotle	103	(2)
Classical Philosophy After Aristotle	105	(22)
The Transition to Hellenistic and Roman Philosophy	105	(1)
Cynicism	106	(1)
Epicureanism	107	(4)
Epicurean Metaphysics	107	(1)
Ethics and Pleasure	108	(1)
Epicurean Social Philosophy	109	(1)
Religion and Death	110	(1)
The Significance of the Epicureans	110	(1)
Stoicism	111	(6)
Comparison of Epicureanism and Stoicism	111	(1)
Stoic Metaphysics	112	(2)
Ethics and Resignation	114	(1)
Stoic Social Philosophy	115	(1)
The Roman Stoics	115	(1)
The Significance of the Stoics	116	(1)
Skepticism	117	(2)
Academic Skepticism	117	(1)
The Revival of Pyrrhonian Skepticism	118	(1)
The Significance of Skepticism	119	(1)
Plotinus and Neoplatonism	119	(4)
The One	120	(1)
Intellect	120	(1)
Soul	121	(1)
The Material World	121	(1)
The Problem of Evil	121	(1)
The Way of Ascent	122	(1)
The Significance of Neoplatonism	123	(1)
Contemporary Connections 6: Post-Aristotelian Classical Philosophy	123	(4)
PART II THE MIDDLE AGES	127	(94)
Cultural Context: The Development of Christian Thought	129	(11)
The Encounter Between Greek and Christian Thought	129	(2)
The Problem of Faith and Reason	131	(3)
Justin Martyr	132	(1)
Clement of Alexandria	132	(1)
Tertullian	133	(1)
Challenging Heresies and Clarifying Orthodoxy	134	(4)
Gnosticism	135	(1)
The Manichaean Heresy	135	(1)
The Nature of God and the Arian Heresy	136	(1)
The Problem of Free Will and Sin: The Pelagian Heresy	137	(1)
The Future Agenda: A Christian Philosophical Synthesis	138	(1)
Contemporary Connections 7: The Development of Christian Thought	138	(2)
St. Augustine: Philosophy in the Service of Faith	140	(17)
Augustine's Life: From Passionate Pleasure to a Passionate Faith	140	(2)
Augustine's Task: Understanding the Human Predicament	142	(1)
Theory of Knowledge: The Truth Is Within	143	(4)
The Quest for Certainty	143	(2)
Platonic Rationalism	145	(1)
Divine Illumination	145	(1)
Faith and Reason	146	(1)
Metaphysics: God, Creation, Freedom, and Evil	147	(4)
The Existence of God	147	(1)
Creation	147	(2)
Foreknowledge, Providence, and Free Will	149	(1)
The Problem of Evil	150	(1)
Philosophy of History and the State	151	(3)
The Rise of a Christian Philosophy of History	151	(1)
The Two Cities	152	(1)
The Meaning of History	153	(1)
The Problem of Providence and Free Will in History	154	(1)
The Implications of Augustine's Theory of History	154	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	154	(1)
Was Augustine a Philosopher?	154	(1)
Augustine's Influence	155	(1)
Contemporary Connections 8: St. Augustine	155	(2)
Early Medieval Philosophy	157	(10)
From the Roman World to the Middle Ages	157	(1)
A Survey of the Early Middle Ages	157	(2)
The Church	158	(1)
Periods of Darkness and Light	158	(1)
The Byzantine and Islamic Empires	159	(1)
An Overview of Medieval Philosophy	159	(1)
Early Medieval Philosophy	160	(5)
Boethius	160	(2)
John Scotus Erigena	162	(3)
The Return to Darkness	165	(1)
Contemporary Connections 9: Early Medieval Philosophy	166	(1)
Philosophy and Theology in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries	167	(20)
The Flowering of the Middle Ages	167	(2)
The Rise of Scholasticism	169	(6)
The Nature of Scholasticism	169	(1)
The Controversy over Universals	170	(3)
The Controversy over Faith and Reason	173	(1)
The Relation of Will and Intellect	174	(1)
St. Anselm	175	(3)
Peter Abelard	178	(1)
Islamic Philosophers	179	(4)
Preserving Aristotle's Legacy	179	(1)
The Rise of the Islamic Religion	179	(1)
Avicenna	180	(1)
Al-Ghazali	181	(1)
Averroes	182	(1)
Jewish Philosophers	183	(1)
The Rediscovery of Aristotle in Europe	183	(1)
Contemporary Connections 10: The Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries	184	(3)
St. Thomas Aquinas: Aristotle's Philosophy and Christian Thought	187	(18)
The Ox That Roared	187	(1)
Aquinas's Task: Integrating Philosophy and Faith	188	(3)
The Impact of Aristotle	188	(1)
The Spheres of Faith and Reason	189	(1)
Method	190	(1)
The Nature of Knowledge: Reason Processing Experience	191	(1)
Metaphysics: From the World to God	192	(6)
The Physical World	192	(1)
A Hierarchical Universe	192	(1)
Essence and Existence	193	(1)
The Existence of God	194	(3)
The Problem of Religious Langauge	197	(1)
Moral Philosophy: Human Nature and Divine Law	198	(2)
Teological Ethics	198	(1)
The Natural Law	199	(1)
The Four Laws	200	(1)
Political Philosophy	200	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	201	(2)
The Rejection of Platonic Dualism	201	(1)
Science and Theology	201	(2)
Contemporary Connections 11: St. Thomas Aquinas	203	(2)
The Unraveling of the Medieval Synthesis	205	(16)
John Duns Scotus	207	(1)
The Subtle Scottish Professor	207	(1)
Theory of Knowledge: Restricting Reason	207	(1)
Metaphysics: Moving Away from Scholasticism	207	(1)
Universals and Individuality	207	(1)
Natural Theology	208	(1)
Moral Philosophy and the Primacy of the Will	208	(1)
William of Ockham	209	(1)
Ockham's Controversial Life	209	(1)
Ockham's Two Tasks	210	(1)
Theory of Knowledge: Denying Universals	210	(1)
Knowledge Begins in Experience	210	(1)
Ockham's Nominalism	211	(1)
Metaphysics and the Limits of Reason	212	(1)
The Primacy of the Individual	212	(1)
Causality	212	(1)
The Decline of Metaphysics	212	(1)
Rejection of Natural Theology	213	(1)
Moral Philosophy: Radical Voluntarism	213	(1)
Summary and Evaluation of Ockham	214	(2)
Changes In The Methods of Science	216	(1)
Mysticism	216	(2)
The Decline of Medieval Philosophy	218	(1)
Contemporary Connections 12: The Unraveling of the Medieval Synthesis	219	(2)
PART III THE MODERN PERIOD	221	(258)
Cultural Context: Renaissance, Reformation, and the Rise of Modern Science	223	(12)
Renaissance Humanism	224	(2)
The Protestant Reformation	226	(1)
Social and Political Changes	227	(1)
The Rise of Modern Science	228	(3)
The Copernican Revolution	228	(1)
The Galileo Incident	229	(1)
The Implications of the New Science	230	(1)
Philosophy in a New Key	231	(2)
Contemporary Connections 13: Renaissance, Reformation, and Modern Science	233	(2)
Early Empiricists: Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes	235	(14)
Francis Bacon	235	(1)
The Rise and Fall of Francis Bacon	235	(1)
Bacon's Task: The Reconstruction of All Knowledge	236	(1)
The Route to Knowledge: From Idols to Induction	236	(2)
The Corruption of the Mind	236	(1)
Restoration of the Mind's Original Condition	237	(1)
Bacon's Inductive Method	238	(1)
Bacon's Scientific Humanism	238	(1)
Evaluation and Significance of Bacon	239	(1)
Thomas Hobbes	240	(1)
Hobbes's Life: Controversy and Innovation	240	(1)
Hobbes's Task: Making Physics Sovereign in Philosophy	240	(1)
The Physics of Knowledge	241	(2)
Psychological Motions	241	(1)
Verbal Motions	242	(1)
Metaphysics: All Motion Is Determined	243	(1)
Ethical Motions	243	(1)
The Physics of Political Bodies	244	(2)
A Personal Agenda and a Theoretical Program	244	(1)
The State of Nature	244	(1)
The Natural Laws	245	(1)
The Social Contract	246	(1)
Evaluation and Significance of Hobbes	246	(1)
Contemporary Connections 14: Early Empiricists	247	(2)
Rene Descartes: Founder of Modern Philosophy	249	(17)
Descartes's Life: World Traveler and Intellectual Explorer	249	(1)
Descartes's Philosophical Agenda	250	(1)
The Discovery of a Method	251	(1)
Finding the Foundations of Knowledge	252	(3)
Method of Doubt	252	(2)
The Foundation of Certainty	254	(1)
The Nature of the Self	254	(1)
The Criteria of Truth	255	(1)
Metaphysics: God, World, Minds, and Bodies	255	(7)
The Causal Argument for God's Existence	255	(1)
Criticisms of Descartes's Causal Argument for God	256	(1)
Further Arguments for God's Existence	257	(1)
God and the Validity of Reason	258	(1)
The Existence of the Physical World	259	(1)
The Mind-Body Relation	260	(1)
Descartes's Compromise	261	(1)
Interactionism	261	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	262	(1)
Contemporary Connections 15: Rene Descartes	263	(3)
Benedict (Baruch) Spinoza: Rationalist and Mystic	266	(15)
Spinoza's Life: Heresy, Lens Grinding, and Philosophy	266	(1)
Task: To Achieve Freedom from Bondage	267	(1)
Spinoza's Geometrical Method	268	(1)
Theory of Knowledge: Necessity Rules	268	(1)
The Nature of Truth	268	(1)
The Three Levels of Cognition	269	(1)
Metaphysics: God Is the Only Reality	269	(5)
Substance and God	269	(2)
Atheist or Religious Mystic?	271	(1)
Freedom and Necessity	272	(1)
The Mind-Body Problem	273	(1)
Ethics: How to Be Free from Bondage	274	(3)
Evaluation and Significance	277	(1)
Contemporary Connections 16: Spinoza	278	(3)
Gottfried Leibniz: The Optimistic Rationalist	281	(15)
Leibniz's Life: Diplomat, Scientist, and Philosopher	281	(1)
Task: The Search for Unity and Harmony	282	(1)
Method: Logic Is the Key	282	(1)
Theory of Knowledge: Unpacking the Truths of Reason	283	(3)
Innate Ideas	283	(1)
Necessity and Contingency	284	(2)
Metaphysics: God as the Divine Programmer	286	(7)
Does God Exist?	286	(1)
Is This the Best of All Possible Worlds?	286	(2)
Why Is There Evil in the Best of All Possible Worlds?	288	(1)
The Problems Descartes Could Never Solvs	288	(1)
Are You a Monad?	289	(1)
Monads Are Windowless	290	(1)
The Pre-established Harmony of the World	290	(1)
Extension, Space, and Time	291	(1)
The Mind-Body Problem Revisited	291	(1)
Teleology and Mechanism Reconciled	292	(1)
Is Freedom Compatible with Determinism?	292	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	293	(1)
Contemporary Connections 17: Leibniz	294	(2)
Cultural Context: The Enlightenment and the Age of Newton	296	(7)
The Impact of Newton's Science	296	(2)
Philosophizing in a Newtonian Style	298	(1)
The Consequences for Religion	299	(1)
The French Enlightenment	300	(1)
Summary of the Enlightenment	301	(1)
Contemporary Connections 18: The Enlightenment	302	(1)
John Locke: The Rise of Modern Empiricism	303	(17)
Physician, Political Adviser, and Philosopher	303	(1)
Locke's Task: Discovering What We Can Know	304	(1)
Locke's Method for Analyzing Ideas	304	(1)
Locke's Empirical Theory of Knowledge	305	(4)
Critique of Innate Ideas	305	(1)
Simple Ideas	305	(1)
Complex Ideas	306	(1)
Primary and Secondary Qualities	307	(1)
Representative Realism	308	(1)
Degrees of Knowledge	308	(1)
Metaphysics: The Reality Behind the Appearances	309	(1)
What Is the Source of Moral Knowledge?	310	(1)
An Empirical Philosophy of Religion	311	(1)
Empirical Origins of the Idea of God	311	(1)
Demonstrating God's Existence	312	(1)
Locke's Influence on Deism	312	(1)
A Political Theory for the Enlightenment	312	(3)
The State of Nature	313	(1)
Natural Law and Human Rights	313	(1)
The Social Contract	314	(1)
The Limits of Government	314	(1)
Locke's Eighteenth-Century Assumptions	315	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	315	(2)
Defending Innate Knowledge	315	(1)
Critics of Representative Realism	316	(1)
Locke's Significance	316	(1)
Contemporary Connections 19: Locke	317	(3)
George Berkeley: Following the Road of Empiricism	320	(15)
Philosopher, Educator, and Bishop	320	(1)
Berkeley's Task: Battling Skepticism and Unbelief	321	(1)
Berkeley's Reform of Empiricism	322	(5)
Berkeley's Theory of Ideas	322	(1)
Critique of Abstract Ideas	322	(1)
Argument from the Mental Dependency of Ideas	323	(1)
Argument from Pain and Pleasure	324	(1)
Argument from Perceiver Relativity	324	(1)
Inseparability of Primary and Secondary Qualities	325	(1)
Argument from the Imagination	326	(1)
Critique of the Representative Theory of Perception	326	(1)
Metaphysics: Reality as Mind and Ideas	327	(5)
The Existence of the World	327	(1)
God's Existence	328	(2)
Science and the Laws of Nature	330	(1)
Problems with Spiritual Substances	331	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	332	(1)
Contemporary Connections 20: Berkeley	333	(2)
David Hume: The Scottish Skeptic	335	(16)
Hume's Life: A Passion for Literary Fame	335	(1)
Task: Unlocking the Secrets of Human Nature	336	(1)
Theory of Knowledge: The Gulf Between Reason and the World	336	(3)
The Origins of Our Ideas	336	(1)
The Association of Ideas	337	(1)
Two Kinds of Reasoning	337	(2)
Implications of the Theory of Knowledge	339	(1)
Metaphysics: Skeptical Doubts About Reality	339	(3)
Substance: An Empty Idea	339	(1)
Self: The Stream of Consciousness	340	(1)
Causality: Will the Sun Rise Tomorrow?	340	(2)
Ethics: The Rule of the Passions---The Slavery of Reason	342	(3)
Philosophy of Religion: Searching for What We Cannot Find	345	(2)
God's Existence Cannot Be Proven	345	(1)
Hume's Attitude Toward Religion	346	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	347	(2)
Contemporary Connections 21: Hume	349	(2)
Immanuel Kant: Finding the Powers and the Limits of the Mind	351	(23)
Kant's Life: A Methodical Man with Revolutionary Thoughts	351	(1)
Task: Avoiding Dogmatism and Skepticism	352	(1)
Theory of Knowledge: The Mind Makes Experience Possible	353	(7)
Critical Philosophy	353	(1)
Kant's Copernican Revolution	353	(1)
The Varieties of Judgments	354	(2)
The Transcendental Method	356	(1)
Space and Time: The Forms of Sense Perception	357	(1)
The Categories of the Understanding	357	(1)
Answering Hume's Skepticism	358	(1)
Kant's Theory of Experience	359	(1)
Metaphysics: Bumping Against the Limits of Reason	360	(5)
Phenomena and Noumena	360	(1)
The Transcendent Illusions of Metaphysics	361	(1)
The Elusive Self	362	(1)
The Unthinkable Cosmos	362	(1)
God: Neither Provable nor Disprovable	363	(2)
Regulative Use of the Concepts of Pure Reason	365	(1)
Ethics as a Rational Discipline	365	(6)
The Nature of Ethics	365	(1)
The Good Will	366	(1)
Reason as the Source of the Moral Law	367	(1)
The Categorical Imperative I: Conformity to a Universal Law	368	(1)
The Categorical Imperative II: Persons as Ends in Themselves	369	(1)
The Categorical Imperative III: Persons as Moral Legislators	370	(1)
The Three Postulates of Morality	370	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	371	(1)
Contemporary Connections 22: Kant	371	(3)
The Nineteenth-Century Cultural Context: Romanticism, Science, and the Sense of History	374	(13)
Overcoming the Kantian Dualism	374	(1)
German Idealism	375	(3)
Fichte: Reality Is Known in Moral Experience	376	(1)
Schelling: Reality Is Known in Aesthetic Experience	377	(1)
Romanticism	378	(2)
The Importance of History	380	(3)
The Evolutionary Model	381	(1)
The Rise of Historicism	381	(1)
The Ideal of Progress	382	(1)
Questions About Reason and Subjectivity	383	(2)
Summary of the Nineteenth-Century Agenda	385	(1)
Contemporary Connections 23: The Nineteenth Century	385	(2)
G. W. F. Hegel: Biographer of the World Spirit	387	(19)
Hegel's Life: From Average Student to World-Famous Philosopher	387	(1)
Task: Fitting the Pieces of History and Reality Together	388	(1)
Theory of Knowledge: Reason Reveals Reality	389	(4)
Dialectic	389	(1)
Beginning the Search for Knowledge	390	(1)
The Journey of Consciousness	391	(1)
Historicism	392	(1)
Absolute Knowledge	393	(1)
Whose Mind, Whose Consciousness Are We Talking About?	393	(1)
Metaphysics: Reason Becoming Self-Conscious	393	(3)
Hegel's Idealism	393	(1)
Do Objects Exist Only in the Mind?	394	(1)
What Is the Relationship Between Mind and Nature?	394	(1)
How Are the Absolute Spirit and Human Spirit Related?	395	(1)
Was Hegel a Theist?	395	(1)
Ethics and Community Life	396	(2)
Custom as the Source of Ethical Values	397	(1)
The Rise of Individualistic Morality	397	(1)
Kant: The Culmination of Individualistic Ethics	397	(1)
Ethical Life	398	(1)
Political Philosophy: The Glorification of the State	398	(2)
Criticism: Hegel Deifies the Status Quo	399	(1)
Defense: Hegel Does Not Deify the Status Quo	400	(1)
Philosophy of History: Are We Pawns in History's Game?	400	(3)
History Is Purposeful	400	(2)
Art, Religion, Philosophy	402	(1)
The End of History?	402	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	403	(1)
Evaluation of Hegel	403	(1)
Hegel's Influence	403	(1)
Contemporary Connections 24: Hegel	403	(3)
Karl Marx: A Philosophy for Changing the World	406	(20)
Marx's Life: The Making of a Radical	407	(1)
Marx's Background and Influences	407	(2)
The Rational Society: Actual or Potential?	408	(1)
God: Absolute Spirit or Humanity?	408	(1)
Task: Achieving an Earthly Salvation	409	(3)
The Struggle Toward a Rational, Humane Society	409	(1)
The Salvation of Humanity	410	(1)
The Realization of Philosophy	411	(1)
The Early Marx: The Tragedy of Human Alienation	412	(1)
What Does It Mean to Be Human?	412	(1)
Are There Two Marxisms?	413	(1)
Historical Materialism	413	(7)
Materialism	413	(1)
The Marxian Dialectic	414	(1)
The Economic Interpretation of History	415	(1)
Ideology	416	(3)
The Theory of Revolution	419	(1)
Marx's Analysis of Capitalism	420	(2)
Communism: The New Humanity and the New Society	422	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	423	(1)
Contemporary Connections 25: Marx	424	(2)
Soren Kierkegaard: The Founder of Religious Existentialism	426	(17)
The Stages in Kierkegaard's Life: From Passionate Playboy to Passionate Christian	427	(1)
Task: To Make Life More Difficult	428	(1)
Kierkegaard's Method: Indirect Communication	429	(1)
Kierkegaard on Knowledge: Truth and Subjectivity	430	(3)
Objective Knowing Versus Subjective Knowing	430	(1)
Knowing the Truth Versus Being in the Truth	430	(1)
The Result Versus the Process	431	(1)
Religious Belief	431	(2)
Kierkegaard the Antimetaphysician: Existence, Time, Eternity	433	(1)
Stages on Life's Way	434	(5)
The Aesthetic Stage	435	(1)
The Ethical Stage	436	(1)
The Religious Stage	437	(2)
Christianity as the Paradox and the Absurd	439	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	440	(1)
Contemporary Connections 26: Kierkegaard	440	(3)
Friedrich Nietzsche: The Founder of Secular Existentialism	443	(17)
Nietzsche's Life: The Lonely Prophet	443	(1)
Task: The Journey from Darkness to Daybreak	444	(1)
Nietzsche's Theory of Knowledge: Perspectives and Instincts	445	(4)
Radical Perspectivism	445	(1)
Romantic Primitivism	446	(1)
Criteria for Evaluating Perspectives	447	(1)
Philosophy as Pathology	448	(1)
Philosophy as Therapy	448	(1)
Living Without Metaphysical Hopes	449	(2)
The Death of God	449	(2)
The Will to Power	451	(1)
Moral Values and Personality Types	451	(5)
Master and Slave Morality	451	(2)
Revaluation of Values	453	(1)
The Overman	454	(1)
The Myth of Eternal Recurrence	455	(1)
Evaluation and Significance	456	(1)
Contemporary Connections 27: Nietzsche	457	(3)
Nineteenth-Century Empiricism: Comte, Bentham, and Mill	460	(19)
Auguste Comte	461	(1)
Comte's Life: A Reformer of Science, Society, and Religion	461	(1)
Comte's Task: Moving from Superstition to Positive Science	462	(1)
Comte's Scientific Religion	463	(1)
Evaluation and Significance of Comte's Ideas	464	(1)
Jeremy Bentham	465	(1)
Bentham's Life: The Making of a Political Reformer	465	(1)
Bentham's Task: A Scientific Foundation for Morals and Politics	465	(1)
Bentham's Moral Philosophy: Pleasure Is the Only Source of Value	466	(2)
Bentham's Social Philosophy: A Scientific Guide for Reform	468	(1)
John Stuart Mill	469	(1)
Mill's Life: Corporate Executive and Philosopher	469	(1)
Mill's Refinement of Utilitarianism	470	(2)
Mill's Social Philosophy: The Importance of Liberty	472	(2)
Mill's Other Contributions	474	(1)
Evaluation and Significance of Utilitarianism	474	(2)
Contemporary Connections 28: Comte and the Utilitarians	476	(3)
PART IV THE CONTEMPORARY PERIOD	479	(106)
The Twentieth-Century Cultural Context: Science, Language, and Experience	481	(7)
Living in Kant's Shadow	482	(1)
Philosophy: Piecemeal Analysis or Grasping the Big Picture?	482	(2)
The Role of Science in Philosophy	484	(1)
The Role of Language and Experience in Philosophy	484	(3)
Contemporary Connections 29: The Twentieth Century	487	(1)
Pragmatism: The Unity of Thought and Action	488	(19)
The Origins of Pragmatism	488	(2)
Charles Sanders Peirce	490	(1)
The Obscure Founder of a Famous Philosophy	490	(1)
The Nature of Inquiry	490	(2)
The Theory of Meaning	492	(1)
Truth and Reality	493	(1)
Fallibilism	494	(1)
William James	495	(1)
From Physician to Philosopher	495	(1)
James and Peirce	495	(1)
The Cash Value of Truth	495	(2)
The Subjective Justification of Beliefs	497	(1)
Freedom and Determinism	498	(1)
The Will to Believe	499	(1)
John Dewey	500	(1)
The Ambassador-at-Large of Pragmatism	500	(1)
Dewey's Task	500	(1)
Influences on Dewey's Thought	500	(1)
Instrumentalism	501	(1)
The Concept of Truth	502	(1)
Ethics as Problem Solving	502	(2)
Education, Social Philosophy, and Religion	504	(1)
The Significance of Pragmatism	504	(1)
Contemporary Connections 30: Pragmatism	505	(2)
Analytic Philosophy and the Linguistic Turn	507	(28)
The Turn to Language and Analysis	507	(1)
Bertrand Russell	508	(1)
Russell's Life: Mathematician, Philosopher, Reformer	508	(1)
Background: The Revolt Against Hegelianism	509	(1)
British Idealism	509	(1)
G. E. Moore	509	(1)
Russell's Task: Developing a Logically Perfect Language	510	(1)
Russell's Logical Atomism	510	(1)
How Language Connects with the World	511	(1)
Russell's Theory of Logical Constructions	512	(2)
Logical Positivism	514	(1)
The Verifiability Principle	515	(1)
The Demise of Metaphysics and Theology	515	(1)
The Status of Ethics	516	(1)
Problems with Logical Positivism	517	(1)
Ludwig Wittgenstein	518	(1)
Wittgenstein's Life: From Engineer to Philosopher	518	(1)
The Early Wittgenstein: From Logic to Mysticism	519	(3)
The Task of the Tractatus	519	(1)
The Picture Theory of Language	519	(1)
Wittgenstein's Mysticism	520	(2)
The Later Wittgenstem. The Turn to Ordinary Language	522	(5)
Language-Games	522
Meaning and Use	521	(4)
Forms of Life	525	(1)
Ordinary Language Versus Philosophical Language	525	(1)
Philosophy as Therapy	526	(1)
The Impact of Wittgenstein's Later Philosophy	526	(1)
Conceptual Analysis	527	(1)
Gilbert Ryle	527	(2)
Category Mistakes	527	(1)
Descartes's Myth	528	(1)
Ryle's Analysis of Mental Terms	528	(1)
John Austin	529	(2)
Austin's Philosophical Method	530	(1)
Austin's Analysis of Excuses	530	(1)
How to Do Things with Words	531	(1)
The Significance of Analytic Philosophy	531	(1)
Contemporary Connections 31: Analytic Philosophy	532	(3)
Phenomenology and Existentialism	535	(30)
Edmund Husserl	536	(1)
The Life of a Perpetual Beginner	536	(1)
Husserl's Task: Developing Philosophy into a Rigorous Science	536	(1)
Phenomenology as a Science of Experience	537	(1)
The Phenomenological Method	537	(2)
The Thesis of the Natural Standpoint	537	(1)
Bracketing the World	538	(1)
Consciousness as Intentionality	538	(1)
The Discovery of Essences	539	(1)
Transcendental Phenomenology	539	(1)
The Shift to the Life-World	540	(1)
Husserl's Significance	541	(1)
The Influence of Phenomenology	541	(1)
The Transition to Existential Phenomenology	541	(1)
Martin Heidegger	542	(1)
Heidegger's Life	542	(1)
Heidegger's Task: Understanding the Meaning of Being	542	(1)
Heidegger's Radical Conception of Phenomenology	543	(1)
Our Existence as a Window to Being	543	(1)
Being-in-the-World	544	(2)
Being-in	544	(1)
The World	545	(1)
Concern	546	(1)
Modes of Dasein	546	(1)
Facticity and Thrownness	546	(1)
Being-Ahead-of-Myself	547	(1)
Fallenness	547	(1)
The Fundamental Division: Authentic Versus Inauthentic Existence	547	(3)
Anxiety	549	(1)
Being-Towards-Death	549	(1)
Conscience	549	(1)
The Call of Being	550	(3)
The Question of Truth	550	(1)
The Problem of Language	551	(1)
The Task of the Poet	551	(1)
Letting-Be	551	(1)
Rediscovering the Holy	552	(1)
Heidegger's Significance	553	(1)
Jean-Paul Sartre	554	(1)
A Life Lived Amidst Books	554	(1)
Sartre's Task: A Human-Centered Ontology	555	(1)
Two Kinds of Reality: Objects and Persons	555	(1)
An Empty Universe	556	(1)
Existence Precedes Essence	556	(3)
Condemned to Freedom	557	(1)
Facticity	557	(1)
The Paradox of Human Existence	558	(1)
Bad Faith Versus Authenticity	558	(1)
Alienation and Other People	559	(1)
Optimism in the Midst of Alienation	560	(1)
Sartre's Turn to Marxism	560	(1)
The Significance of Existentialism	561	(1)
Contemporary Connections 32: Phenomenology and Existentialism	561	(4)
Recent Issues in Philosophy	565	(20)
Rethinking Empiricism	565	(4)
W.V.O. Quine	566	(1)
Thomas S. Kuhn	567	(2)
Rethinking Philosophy: Postmodernism	569	(5)
Michel Foucault	570	(1)
Jacques Derrida	571	(2)
Richard Rorty	573	(1)
Rethinking Philosophy: Feminism	574	(4)
Feminist Approaches to Epistemology	576	(1)
Feminist Approaches to Ethics	577	(1)
Philosophy in a Global Village	578	(1)
New Issues in Philosophy of Mind	578	(2)
New Issues in Ethics	580	(1)
A Parting Word	581	(1)
Contemporary Connections 33: Recent Issues in Philosophy	582	(3)
Glossary	585	(8)
Index	593