Cognition

by Willingham, Daniel T.

• ISBN13: 9780130286994
• ISBN10: 0130286990
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-01-01
• Publisher: Pearson College Div

Summary

For undergraduate courses in Introductory Cognitive Psychology. Using an interesting, lively approach that assumes no prior knowledge of cognitive psychology, this highly readable text offers comprehensive coverage of classic cognitive psychology and up-to-the-minute coverage of controversies in the field.

Table of Contents

Preface	xv
The Approach of Cognitive Psychology	1	(53)
Why Make Assumptions?	3	(3)
How Did Philosophers and Early Psychologists Study the Mind?	6	(15)
Philosophical Underpinnings	6	(7)
The Beginnings of Modern Psychology	13	(2)
The Response: Behaviorism	15	(2)
Behaviorism's Success	17	(4)
How Do Cognitive Psychologists Study the Mind?	21	(15)
What Behaviorism Couldn't Do	21	(2)
Failures of Behaviorism to Account for Human Behavior	23	(3)
The Computer Metaphor and Information Processing	26	(2)
The Behaviorist Response	28	(1)
Abstract Constructs in Other Fields	29	(3)
So What, Finally, Is the Cognitive Perspective?	32	(4)
Interlude: The Brain	36	(2)
Where Is the Damage?	38	(3)
Where Is the Activation?	41	(3)
The Behavioral Side of the Equation	44	(2)
Lesion Studies	45	(1)
Imaging Studies	45	(1)
Problems and Limitations	46	(2)
Cognitive Neuropsychology	48	(1)
The Five-Minute Brain Anatomy Lesson	49	(5)
Visual Perception	54	(46)
What Makes Visual Perception Hard?	56	(4)
Is Face Perception Special?	60	(2)
How Are These Ambiguities Resolved?	62	(21)
Shape	63	(2)
Brightness Perception	65	(4)
Distance and Size	69	(6)
Top-Down Influences in Vision	75	(3)
An Alternative Point of View: The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception	78	(5)
What Is Visual Perception For?	83	(13)
Identifying Objects	84	(1)
Older Theories	85	(7)
Navigation	92	(4)
Functional Imaging Evidence Bearing on the Representation of Space in the Temporal Lobe	96	(4)
Attention	100	(45)
In What Way Is Attention Limited?	103	(18)
Parallel Performance	104	(2)
Changes in Task Performance	106	(3)
Consistent Attention Requirements	109	(4)
Summary of Difficulties	113	(1)
Allocation of Attention	114	(1)
Reduction in Attention Demands with Practice: Automaticity	115	(6)
What Is the Fate of Sensory Stimuli That Are Not Selected to Receive Attention?	121	(10)
Early Filter Theories	123	(1)
Late Filter Theories	124	(3)
Movable Filter	127	(1)
What Is Selected?	128	(3)
Neural Evidence for Selection of Objects by Attention	131	(4)
How Does Selection Operate?	132	(3)
Why Does Selection Fail?	135	(6)
Stimuli That Capture Attention	136	(1)
Feature Singletons	137	(1)
Ironic Process of Mental Control	138	(2)
Maintaining Attention: Vigilance	140	(1)
Vigilance and Laterality	141	(4)
Sensory Memory and Primary Memory	145	(47)
What Is Sensory Memory?	147	(13)
Early Span of Apprehension Studies	148	(1)
Sperling's Partial Report Procedure	149	(5)
Further Work	154	(3)
What Is Iconic Memory For?	157	(2)
Echoic Memory	159	(1)
Tracking Auditory Sensory Memory	160	(4)
What Are the Characteristics of Primary Memory?	164	(12)
Impetus to Study Primary Memory	164	(2)
How Forgetting Occurs	166	(4)
Representation	170	(2)
Capacity	172	(4)
How Does Primary Memory Work?	176	(3)
Models of Primary Memory	177	(1)
Working Memory	178	(1)
The Neural Basis of Working Memory	179	(3)
The Loss of the Phonological Store	182	(10)
Primary Memory Contributions to Secondary Memory Tasks	185	(2)
Working Memory as a Workspace	187	(5)
Memory Encoding	192	(43)
What Determines What We Encode in Memory?	194	(3)
Factor 1: Emotion Engendered by the Material	194	(3)
Emotional Processing and Recall of Emotional Information	197	(15)
Factor 2: Repetition of the Material	200	(2)
Factor 3: Depth, or Thinking About the Meaning of the Material	202	(3)
Factor 4: Effort to Learn the Material	205	(1)
Interim Summary	206	(1)
Depth and Elaboration	207	(2)
Problems with the Levels of Processing Theory	209	(1)
Match Between Encoding and Retrieval: Transfer Appropriate Processing	209	(3)
What Is Remembered, What Is Forgotten?	212	(4)
Match Between Encoding and Retrieval: Physical Environment	213	(2)
Conclusion	215	(1)
Why Do We Encode Things as We Do?	216	(9)
Prior Knowledge Reduces What You Have to Remember	218	(1)
Prior Knowledge Guides Your Interpretation of Details	219	(3)
Prior Knowledge Makes Unusual Things Stand Out	222	(3)
What Happens After We Encode Something?	225	(5)
Retrograde and Anterograde Amnesia	225	(2)
Proving That There Is a Temporal Gradient	227	(3)
Direct Evidence of Changes in Memory Across Time	230	(5)
Consolidation	231	(2)
What Does Consolidation Mean for Memory?	233	(2)
Memory Retrieval	235	(44)
How Come Sometimes We Can Retrieve a Memory and Other Times We Can't Retrieve the Same Memory?	236	(16)
Measures of Memory	237	(3)
Sensitivity of Memory Measures	240	(3)
Differences in Cues	243	(2)
Encoding and Retrieval Redux	245	(2)
Retrieval Cues and Memory Test Sensitivity	247	(5)
The Frontal Lobe and Memory Retrieval	252	(4)
Retrieval and Prior Knowledge	253	(3)
Functional Imaging Studies of the Frontal Lobe and Memory	256	(3)
Mnemonics: A Framework for Retrieval	257	(2)
Why Do We Forget?	259	(20)
Decay Theory	259	(2)
Interference Theory	261	(4)
The Permanence of Memory	265	(6)
Forgetting Caused by Repression	271	(8)
Memory Storage	279	(54)
What Is in the Storehouse?	280	(16)
The Classical View	282	(2)
Typicality Effects	284	(3)
Category Hierarchy	287	(3)
Prototypes	290	(2)
Exemplar Models	292	(3)
Problems with Similarity Models	295	(1)
Functional Imaging Evidence on the Difference Between Rule Application and Similarity Judgments in Categorization	296	(4)
Summary	299	(1)
How Is Memory Organized?	300	(14)
Addressing System	300	(1)
Content-Addressable Storage	301	(2)
Hierarchical Theory	303	(2)
Spreading Activation Theories	305	(2)
Spreading Activation Models: An Example	307	(2)
Evidence of Activation	309	(2)
Criticisms of Spreading Activation	311	(1)
Distributed Representation (Parallel Distributed Processing)	311	(3)
How Are Concepts Organized in the Brain?	314	(3)
Criticisms of Parallel Distributed Processing Models	316	(1)
What Else Is in Memory?	317	(5)
What Are Separate Memory Systems?	318	(1)
Procedural and Declarative Memory	318	(4)
Functional Imaging Evidence of Procedural/Declarative Memory	322	(11)
Support from Studies with Control Participants	325	(4)
Criticism of the Multiple-System Approach	329	(2)
Coda	331	(2)
Visual Imagery	333	(49)
What Purpose Does Visual Imagery Serve?	335	(9)
Imagery in Early Psychology	336	(1)
Imagery Reenters Psychology	336	(7)
Imagery and Perception	343	(1)
The Overlap of Imagery and Perceptual Processes	344	(5)
Are Visual Images Supported by a Separate Representation System?	349	(11)
The Role of Introspection: Imagery as an Epiphenomenon	350	(1)
The Metaphor Is Misleading	351	(1)
Demand Characteristics and Tacit Knowledge	351	(1)
Propositional Versus Analog Representation	352	(3)
Imagery Theorists Fight Back	355	(5)
The Visual Angle of the Mind's Eye and Available Cortex	360	(4)
How Does Visual Imagery Work?	364	(14)
Image Generation	364	(6)
Image Inspection	370	(4)
Image Transformation	374	(4)
Direct Evidence for Smooth Rotation	378	(4)
Decision Making and Deductive Reasoning	382	(54)
Do People Consistently Make Optimal Decisions?	384	(9)
Normative or Rational Models	384	(3)
Demonstrations of Human Irrationality	387	(6)
What Shortcuts Do People Use to Make Decisions?	393	(9)
Representativeness	393	(1)
Availability	394	(2)
Anchoring and Adjustment	396	(1)
Information That We Ignore	397	(5)
Decision Making and Emotion: The Somatic Marker Hypothesis	402	(7)
Summary	403	(1)
Alternative Concepts of Optimality	404	(5)
Do People Reason Logically?	409	(27)
Formal Logic	410	(2)
Are Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Supported by Different Brain Structures?	412	(4)
Human Success and Failure in Reasoning: Conditional Statements	416	(5)
Human Success and Failure in Reasoning: Syllogisms	421	(3)
General Models of Reasoning	424	(7)
Rational Analysis Models	431	(1)
Mental Models, Spatial Reasoning, and Brain Imaging	432	(2)
Summary	434	(2)
Problem Solving	436	(49)
How Do You Solve a Problem if You Have Had No Experience With Similar Problems?	438	(10)
Problem Spaces	438	(10)
What Do You Do When You Have Knowledge That Seems to Apply to a Problem but No Experience with the Specific Problem?	448	(2)
How Background Knowledge Helps	448	(2)
Using Background Knowledge: The Role of the Frontal Lobe	450	(20)
Thinking About the Relationships Between Objects in a Problem: Analogy	452	(5)
Thinking About the Attributes of Individual Objects in a Problem: Functional Fixedness	457	(13)
What Makes People Good at Solving Problems?	470	(8)
How Do Experts Differ From Novices?	470	(3)
How Do You Get to Be an Expert?	473	(3)
What Makes Nonexperts Good at Solving Problems?	476	(2)
Functional Imaging of Problem Solving and Working Memory	478	(7)
Language	485	(52)
What Is Language, and What Makes Language Processing Difficult?	487	(12)
What Is Language?	488	(5)
Grammar	493	(6)
How Are Ambiguities Resolved?	499	(7)
Words	502	(4)
Functional Imaging of Single Word Processing	506	(6)
Sentences	509	(7)
Texts	516
Functional Activation of Syntactic Processing	512	(12)
How Are Language and Thought Related?	524	(13)
Ape Language	525	(4)
Language and Thought	529	(8)
Appendix	537	(3)
Answers to Questions	540	(16)
Glossary	556	(12)
References	568	(22)
Credits	590	(4)
Author Index	594	(7)
Subject Index	601