Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction

by Evans; Vyvyan

• ISBN13: 9780805860146
• ISBN10: 0805860142
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Nonspecific Binding
• Copyright: 2006-03-03
• Publisher: Routledge

Summary

A general introduction to the area of theoretical linguistics known as cognitive linguistics, this textbook provides up-to-date coverage of all areas of the field, including recent developments within cognitive semantics (such as Primary Metaphor Theory, Conceptual Blending Theory, and Principled Polysemy), and cognitive approaches to grammar (such as Radical Construction Grammar and Embodied Construction Grammar). The authors offer clear, critical evaluations of competing formal approaches within theoretical linguistics. For example, cognitive linguistics is compared to Generative Grammar and Relevance Theory. In the selection of material and in the presentations, the authors have aimed for a balanced perspective. Part II, Cognitive Semantics, and Part III, Cognitive Approaches to Grammar, have been created to be read independently. The authors have kept in mind that different instructors and readers will need to use the book in different ways tailored to their own goals. The coverage is suitable for a number of courses. While all topics are presented in terms accessible to both undergraduate and graduate students of linguistics, cognitive linguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive science, and modern languages, this work is sufficiently comprehensive and detailed to serve as a reference work for scholars who wish to gain a better understanding of cognitive linguistics.

Author Biography

Vyvyan Evans is a member of faculty in the Department of Linguistics and English Language, and the Centre for Research in Cognitive Science, at the University of Sussex

Table of Contents

Preface	p. xix
Acknowledgements	p. xxiii
Abbreviations, symbols and transcription	p. xxv
Overview of the Cognitive Linguistics Enterprise
Introduction	p. 3
What does it mean to know a language?	p. 5
What is language for?	p. 6
The symbolic function of language	p. 6
The interactive function of language	p. 6
The systematic structure of language	p. 11
Evidence for a system	p. 12
The systematic structure of thought	p. 14
What do linguists do?	p. 15
What?	p. 15
Why?	p. 16
How?	p. 16
Speaker intuitions	p. 16
Converging evidence	p. 17
What it means to know a language	p. 18
Summary	p. 20
Further reading	p. 22
Exercises	p. 23
The nature of cognitive linguistics: assumptions and commitments	p. 27
Two key commitments	p. 27
The 'Generalisation Commitment'	p. 28
The 'Cognitive Commitment'	p. 40
The embodied mind	p. 44
Embodied experience	p. 45
Embodied cognition	p. 46
Experiential realism	p. 47
Cognitive semantics and cognitive approaches to grammar	p. 48
Summary	p. 50
Further reading	p. 50
Exercises	p. 52
Universals and variation in language, thought and experience	p. 54
Universals in thought and language	p. 55
Typological universals	p. 57
Universals in formal linguistics	p. 60
Universals in cognitive linguistics	p. 63
Cross-linguistic patterns in semantic systems	p. 68
Patterns in the conceptualisation of space	p. 68
Patterns in the conceptualisation of time	p. 75
Cross-linguistic variation in semantic systems	p. 87
Variation in the conceptualisation of space	p. 87
Variation in the conceptualisation of time	p. 92
Linguistic relativity and cognitive linguistics	p. 95
Whorf and the Linguistic Relativity Principle	p. 96
Language as a shaper of thought	p. 98
The cognitive linguistics position	p. 101
Summary	p. 101
Further reading	p. 102
Exercises	p. 105
Language in use: knowledge of language, language change and language acquisition	p. 108
Language in use	p. 109
A usage event	p. 109
The relationship between usage and linguistic structure	p. 111
Comprehension and production	p. 112
Context	p. 112
Frequency	p. 114
Cognitive Grammar	p. 114
Abstraction, schematisation and language use	p. 115
Schemas and their instantiations	p. 115
Partial sanction	p. 116
The non-reductive nature of schemas	p. 117
Frequency in schema formation	p. 118
A usage-based approach to language change	p. 120
Historical linguistics and language change	p. 121
The Utterance Selection Theory of language change	p. 123
The Generalised Theory of Selection and the Theory of Utterance Selection	p. 125
Causal mechanisms for language change	p. 127
The usage-based approach to language acquisition	p. 133
Empirical findings in language acquisition	p. 134
The cognitive view: socio-cognitive mechanisms in language acquisition	p. 136
Comparing the generative view of language acquisition	p. 140
Summary	p. 146
Further reading	p. 147
Exercises	p. 148
Cognitive Semantics
Introduction	p. 153
What is cognitive semantics?	p. 156
Guiding principles	p. 157
Conceptual structure is embodied	p. 157
Semantic structure is conceptual structure	p. 158
Meaning representation is encyclopaedic	p. 160
Meaning construction is conceptualisation	p. 162
Phenomena investigated within cognitive semantics	p. 163
The bodily basis of meaning	p. 163
Conceptual structure	p. 165
Encyclopaedic semantics	p. 166
Mappings	p. 167
Categorisation	p. 168
Word meaning and polysemy	p. 169
Methodology	p. 170
Some comparisons with formal approaches to semantics	p. 171
Summary	p. 172
Further reading	p. 173
Exercises	p. 174
Embodiment and conceptual structure	p. 176
Image schemas	p. 177
What is an image schema?	p. 178
Properties of image schemas	p. 179
Image schemas and linguistic meaning	p. 189
A provisional list of image schemas	p. 190
Image schemas and abstract thought	p. 190
Conceptual structure	p. 191
Semantic structure	p. 192
Schematic systems	p. 194
Summary	p. 201
Further reading	p. 201
Exercises	p. 202
The encyclopaedic view of meaning	p. 206
Dictionaries versus encylopaedias	p. 207
The dictionary view	p. 207
Problems with the dictionary view	p. 210
Word meaning versus sentence meaning	p. 213
The encyclopaedic view	p. 215
Frame semantics	p. 222
What is a semantic frame?	p. 222
Frames in cognitive psychology	p. 222
The Commercial Event frame	p. 225
Speech event frames	p. 228
Consequences of adopting a frame-based model	p. 229
The theory of domains	p. 230
What is a domain?	p. 230
Basic, image-schematic and abstract domains	p. 232
Other characteristics of domains	p. 235
Profile/base organisation	p. 236
Active zones	p. 238
The perceptual basis of knowledge representation	p. 240
Summary	p. 243
Further reading	p. 244
Exercises	p. 245
Categorisation and idealised cognitive models	p. 248
Categorisation and cognitive semantics	p. 249
The classical theory	p. 251
The definitional problem	p. 252
The problem of conceptual fuzziness	p. 253
The problem of prototypicality	p. 254
Further problems	p. 254
Prototype theory	p. 255
Principles of categorisation	p. 255
The categorisation system	p. 256
The vertical dimension	p. 256
The horizontal dimension	p. 264
Problems with prototype theory	p. 268
The theory of idealised cognitive models	p. 269
Sources of typicality effects	p. 270
Radial categories as a further source of typicality effects	p. 275
Addressing the problems with prototype theory	p. 278
The structure of ICMs	p. 279
Summary	p. 281
Further reading	p. 282
Exercises	p. 283
Metaphor and metonymy	p. 286
Literal versus figurative language	p. 287
Literal and figurative language as complex concepts	p. 287
Can the distinction be maintained?	p. 289
What is metaphor?	p. 293
Conceptual Metaphor Theory	p. 296
The unidirectionality of metaphor	p. 296
Motivation for target and source	p. 297
Metaphorical entailments	p. 298
Metaphor systems	p. 299
Metaphors and image schemas	p. 300
Invariance	p. 301
The conceptual nature of metaphor	p. 303
Hiding and highlighting	p. 303
Primary Metaphor Theory	p. 304
Primary and compound metaphors	p. 304
Experiential correlation	p. 305
Motivating primary metaphors	p. 306
Distinguishing primary and compound metaphors	p. 307
What is metonymy?	p. 310
Conceptual metonymy	p. 314
Metonymy as an access mechanism	p. 315
Metonymy-producing relationships	p. 316
Vehicles for metonymy	p. 317
Metaphor-metonymy interaction	p. 318
Summary	p. 321
Further reading	p. 322
Exercises	p. 325
Word meaning and radial categories	p. 328
Polysemy as a conceptual phenomenon	p. 329
Words as radial categories	p. 331
The full-specification approach	p. 333
Image schema transformations	p. 337
Metaphorical extensions	p. 339
Problems with the full-specification approach	p. 339
The Principled Polysemy approach	p. 342
Distinguishing between senses	p. 342
Establishing the prototypical sense	p. 344
Illustration of a radial category based on Principled Polysemy	p. 347
Beyond prepositions	p. 348
The importance of context for polysemy	p. 352
Usage context: subsenses	p. 353
Sentential context: facets	p. 354
Knowledge context: ways of seeing	p. 355
Summary	p. 355
Further reading	p. 356
Exercises	p. 359
Meaning construction and mental spaces	p. 363
Sentence meaning in formal semantics	p. 364
Meaning construction in cognitive semantics	p. 365
Towards a cognitive theory of meaning construction	p. 368
The architecture of mental space construction	p. 371
Space builders	p. 371
Elements	p. 371
Properties and relations	p. 372
Mental space lattices	p. 374
Counterparts and connectors	p. 375
The Access Principle	p. 376
Roles and values	p. 381
An illustration of mental space construction	p. 382
The dynamic nature of meaning construction	p. 386
Tense and aspect in English	p. 387
The tense-aspect system in Mental Spaces Theory	p. 389
Epistemic distance	p. 394
Summary	p. 396
Further reading	p. 397
Exercises	p. 397
Conceptual blending	p. 400
The origins of Blending Theory	p. 401
Towards a theory of conceptual integration	p. 403
The nature of blending	p. 407
The elements of conceptual blending	p. 408
Further linguistic examples	p. 410
Non-linguistic examples	p. 415
Vital relations and compressions	p. 418
Vital relations	p. 419
A taxonomy of vital relations and their compressions	p. 420
Disintegration and decompression	p. 425
A taxonomy of integration networks	p. 426
Simplex networks	p. 426
Mirror networks	p. 426
Single-scope networks	p. 427
Double-scope networks	p. 429
Multiple blending	p. 431
Constraining Blending Theory	p. 433
Comparing Blending Theory with Conceptual Metaphor Theory	p. 435
Contrasts	p. 435
When is a metaphor not a blend?	p. 437
What Blending Theory adds to Conceptual Metaphor Theory	p. 437
Summary	p. 439
Further reading	p. 440
Exercises	p. 441
Cognitive semantics in context	p. 445
Truth-conditional semantics	p. 446
Meaning, truth and reality	p. 446
Object language versus metalanguage	p. 446
The inconsistency of natural language	p. 447
Sentences and propositions	p. 448
Truth-conditional semantics and the generative enterprise	p. 449
Compositionality of meaning	p. 450
Translating natural language into a metalanguage	p. 451
Semantic interpretation and matching	p. 452
Comparison with cognitive semantics	p. 455
Relevance Theory	p. 459
Ostensive communication	p. 459
Mutual cognitive environment	p. 459
Relevance	p. 460
Explicature and implicature	p. 461
Metaphor	p. 463
Comparison with cognitive semantics	p. 463
Summary	p. 465
Further reading	p. 466
Exercises	p. 466
Cognitive Approaches to Grammar
Introduction	p. 471
What is a cognitive approach to grammar?	p. 475
Guiding assumptions	p. 476
The symbolic thesis	p. 476
The usage-based thesis	p. 478
The architecture of the model	p. 479
Distinct cognitive approaches to grammar	p. 480
The 'Conceptual Structuring System Model'	p. 480
Cognitive Grammar	p. 480
Constructional approaches to grammar	p. 481
Cognitive approaches to grammaticalisation	p. 482
Grammatical terminology	p. 483
Grammar	p. 483
Units of grammar	p. 484
Word classes	p. 486
Syntax	p. 492
Grammatical functions	p. 494
Agreement and case	p. 498
Characteristics of the cognitive approach to grammar	p. 500
Grammatical knowledge: a structured inventory of symbolic units	p. 501
Features of the closed-class subsystem	p. 502
Schemas and instances	p. 504
Sanctioning and grammaticality	p. 505
Summary	p. 506
Further reading	p. 507
Exercises	p. 509
The conceptual basis of grammar	p. 512
The grammatical subsystem: encoding semantic structure	p. 513
Talmy's 'Conceptual Structuring System Model'	p. 514
The configuration of Space and Time	p. 515
Conceptual alternativity	p. 516
Schematic systems	p. 517
The 'Configurational Structure System'	p. 518
The 'Attentional System'	p. 526
The 'Perspectival System'	p. 528
The 'Force-Dynamics System'	p. 531
Langacker's theory of Cognitive Grammar	p. 533
The conceptual basis of word classes	p. 533
Attention	p. 535
Force-dynamics	p. 544
Categorisation and polysemy in grammar: the network conception	p. 545
Summary	p. 548
Further reading	p. 549
Exercises	p. 550
Cognitive Grammar: word classes	p. 553
Word classes: linguistic categorisation	p. 554
Nominal predications: nouns	p. 556
Bounding	p. 557
Homogeneity versus heterogeneity	p. 559
Expansibility and contractibility versus replicability	p. 559
Abstractions	p. 560
Nominal versus relational predications	p. 561
Temporal versus atemporal relations	p. 563
Temporal relations: verbs	p. 564
Atemporal relations	p. 565
Class schemas	p. 570
Nominal grounding predications	p. 572
Determiners and quantifiers	p. 572
Grounding	p. 575
Summary	p. 577
Further reading	p. 577
Exercises	p. 578
Cognitive Grammar: constructions	p. 581
Phrase structure	p. 582
Valence	p. 583
Correspondence	p. 584
Profile determinacy	p. 585
Conceptual autonomy versus conceptual dependence	p. 585
Constituency	p. 588
The prototypical grammatical construction	p. 588
Word structure	p. 589
Phonological autonomy and dependence	p. 590
Semantic autonomy and dependence	p. 590
Prototypical stems and affixes	p. 591
Composite structure	p. 591
Constructional schemas	p. 592
Grammatical morphemes and agreement	p. 593
Clauses	p. 594
Valence at the clause level	p. 595
Grammatical functions and transitivity	p. 601
Case	p. 606
Marked coding: the passive construction	p. 609
Summary	p. 610
Further reading	p. 611
Exercises	p. 612
Cognitive Grammar: tense, aspect, mood and voice	p. 615
English verbs: form and function	p. 616
The clausal head	p. 617
The passive construction: [be[subscript 2] [PERF[subscript 3] [V]]]	p. 620
The progressive construction: [be[subscript 1] [-ing [V]]]	p. 621
The perfect construction: [have [PERF[subscript 4] [V]]]	p. 621
The grounding predication: mood and tense	p. 624
Mood	p. 625
Tense	p. 626
The epistemic model	p. 627
Situation aspect	p. 631
Situation types	p. 631
Perfective and imperfective PROCESSES	p. 632
Aspect and the count/mass distinction	p. 634
Summary	p. 637
Further reading	p. 638
Exercises	p. 638
Motivating a construction grammar	p. 641
Constructions versus 'words and rules'	p. 642
Exploring idiomatic expressions	p. 643
Typology of idiomatic expressions	p. 643
Case study I: the let alone construction	p. 648
Case study II: the what's X doing Y construction	p. 651
Construction Grammar	p. 653
The Construction Grammar model	p. 653
Construction Grammar: a 'broadly generative' model	p. 659
Comparing Construction Grammar with Cognitive Grammar	p. 660
The 'Generalisation Commitment'	p. 661
Summary	p. 662
Further reading	p. 662
Exercises	p. 663
The architecture of construction grammars	p. 666
Goldberg's construction grammar	p. 667
Assumptions	p. 667
Advantages of a constructional approach to verb argument structure	p. 669
The relationship between verbs and constructions	p. 671
Relationships between constructions	p. 680
Case studies	p. 684
Radical Construction Grammar	p. 692
Taxonomy of constructions	p. 693
Emphasis on diversity	p. 693
Five key features of RCG	p. 693
Embodied Construction Grammar	p. 697
Emphasis on language processing	p. 697
Analysis and simulation	p. 698
Comparing constructional approaches to grammar	p. 699
Summary	p. 701
Further reading	p. 702
Exercises	p. 703
Grammaticalisation	p. 707
The nature of grammaticalisation	p. 708
Form change	p. 710
Meaning change	p. 712
Metaphorical extension approaches	p. 714
Case study: Object-to-Space	p. 718
Case study: Space-to-Possession	p. 719
Invited Inferencing Theory	p. 721
Case study: the evolution of must	p. 725
The subjectification approach	p. 728
Case study: be going to	p. 730
Case study: the evolution of auxiliaries from verbs of motion or posture	p. 730
Comparison of the three approaches: be going to	p. 732
Summary	p. 733
Further reading	p. 734
Exercises	p. 736
Cognitive approaches to grammar in context	p. 741
Theories of grammar: assumptions, objectives, methodology	p. 741
Cognitive approaches to grammar	p. 743
Generative approaches to grammar	p. 743
Cognitive versus generative models	p. 752
Functional-typological approaches to grammar	p. 758
Core issues in grammar: comparing cognitive and generative accounts	p. 761
Word classes	p. 761
Constituency: heads and dependents	p. 763
The status of tree diagrams	p. 763
Grammatical functions and case	p. 765
The verb string: tense, aspect and mood	p. 767
The passive construction	p. 769
Summary	p. 771
Further reading	p. 771
Exercises	p. 773
Conclusion
Assessing the cognitive linguistics enterprise	p. 777
Achievements	p. 777
Remaining challenges	p. 779
Summary	p. 782
Tables and Figures	p. 783
References	p. 792
Index	p. 812
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