Conducting Research

by Orcher, Lawrence T.

• ISBN13: 9781884585609
• ISBN10: 1884585604
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2004-12-01
• Publisher: Pyrczak Pub

Table of Contents

Introduction	xi
Off to an Early Start	xi
Presentation of Statistical Material	xi
About the End-of-Chapter Exercises	xi
About the Model Literature Reviews	xii
Contacting the Author	xii
Part A Getting Started	1	(88)
Selecting Tentative Topics for Empirical Research	3	(10)
Everyday Observations As a Source of Research Topics	3	(1)
Theories As a Source of Research Topics	4	(1)
Availability of Participants and Topic Selection	5	(1)
Ethical Considerations in Topic Selection	5	(1)
The Audience's Expectations Regarding Topics	6	(1)
Personal Needs and Topic Selection	6	(1)
Published Research As a Source of Topics	6	(2)
Using Demographics to Narrow a Topic	8	(1)
Using Demographics to Make a Topic More Complex	8	(1)
Staying Open to Other Topics	9	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 1	10	(3)
Locating Literature and Refining a Research Topic	13	(6)
Identifying Appropriate Databases	13	(1)
Using a Database Thesaurus	14	(1)
Using Boolean Operators (Not, And, and Or) to Refine a Search	14	(1)
Searching for Theoretical Literature	14	(1)
Searching for an Exact Phrase Match	15	(1)
Searching in Only the Title and/or Abstract Fields	15	(1)
Using a Citation Index	15	(1)
Locating Statistics at www.FedStats.gov	16	(1)
Using a Coding System When Reading the Literature	16	(1)
Considering Literature When Selecting and Refining Topics	17	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 2	17	(2)
Preparing a Literature Review	19	(10)
Preparing a Table That Shows the Key Features of Each Article	19	(2)
Writing an Essay About the Literature	21	(1)
Naming a Specific Topic Near the Beginning of a Review	21	(1)
Writing a Critical Literature Review	22	(2)
Avoiding Statements of ``Facts'' and ``Truths''	24	(1)
Pointing Out Gaps in the Literature	25	(1)
Using Subheadings in a Long Review	25	(1)
Placement of Surnames for In-Text Citations	26	(1)
Explicit Discussions of Relevant Theories	26	(1)
Relationship of the Review to the Research Questions, Purposes, or Hypotheses	26	(1)
Using the Model Literature Reviews at the End of This Book	26	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 3	27	(2)
Writing Research Hypotheses, Purposes, and Questions	29	(6)
Writing Research Hypotheses	29	(1)
Writing Research Purposes	30	(1)
Writing Research Questions	31	(1)
Identifying Populations in Research Hypotheses, Purposes, and Questions	32	(1)
Referring to Measurement Methods in Research Hypotheses, Purposes, and Questions	32	(1)
Concluding Comments	32	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 4	33	(2)
Selecting a Research Approach	35	(10)
Experimental Versus Nonexperimental Research	35	(1)
Major Types of Nonexperimental Research	36	(4)
Causal--Comparative Research	36	(1)
Surveys	37	(1)
Correlational Studies	38	(1)
Document/Content-Analysis Research	39	(1)
Program Evaluation: A Hybrid	40	(1)
Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research	40	(3)
Exercise for Chapter 5	43	(2)
Looking Ahead to Participant Selection	45	(6)
Determining the Number of Participants to Use	45	(1)
Random Sampling for Quantitative Research	46	(1)
Stratified Sampling for Quantitative Research	46	(1)
Convenience Sampling for Quantitative and Qualitative Research	47	(1)
Purposive Sampling for Qualitative Research	48	(1)
Using Literature When Making Plans for Participant Selection	48	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 6	49	(2)
Looking Ahead to Instrumentation	51	(8)
Using Instruments Employed in Previous Research	51	(1)
Locating Existing Instruments	52	(1)
Issues in Devising New Instruments	53	(1)
Validity of Instrumentation in Quantitative Research	53	(1)
Reliability of Instrumentation in Quantitative Research	54	(1)
Credibility of Instrumentation in Qualitative Research	54	(1)
Dependability of Instrumentation in Qualitative Research	55	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 7	56	(3)
Looking Ahead to Data Analysis for Quantitative Research	59	(10)
Analysis of Nominal Data	59	(2)
Percentages	59	(1)
Chi Square	60	(1)
Analysis of Group Differences on Interval Variables	61	(3)
Means and Standard Deviations for One Group	61	(1)
Means and Standard Deviations for Two or More Groups	62	(1)
t Test for Two Means	63	(1)
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for More Than Two Means	63	(1)
Analysis of Change on Interval Variables	64	(1)
Analysis for the Relationship Between Two Interval Variables	65	(1)
Concluding Comments	66	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 8	66	(3)
Looking Ahead to Data Analysis for Qualitative Research	69	(8)
The Intermingling of Data Collection and Data Analysis	69	(1)
Selecting a General Approach to Data Analysis	69	(2)
The Grounded Theory Approach	70	(1)
Consensual Qualitative Approach	71	(1)
Specific Techniques for Analysis of Qualitative Data	71	(4)
Enumeration	71	(1)
Selecting Quotations	72	(1)
Intercoder Agreement	72	(1)
Diagramming	73	(1)
Peer Debriefing	73	(1)
Auditing	74	(1)
Member Checks	74	(1)
Identifying the Range of Responses	74	(1)
Discrepant Case Analysis	75	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 9	75	(2)
Preparing a Preliminary Research Proposal	77	(12)
The Title of a Proposal	77	(1)
The Introduction and Literature Review	78	(2)
The Introduction and Literature Review in Qualitative Research	79	(1)
The Method Section of a Proposal	80	(4)
Participants	80	(1)
Instrumentation	81	(3)
Procedures	84	(1)
The Analysis Section of a Proposal	84	(1)
The Discussion Section of a Proposal	85	(1)
References at the End of a Proposal	86	(1)
The Major Components of a Proposal	86	(1)
Concluding Comments	87	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 10	87	(2)
Part B Issues in Participant Selection	89	(20)
Participant Selection in Quantitative Research	91	(8)
Populations and Bias in Sampling	91	(1)
Simple Random Sampling	92	(1)
Stratified Random Sampling	93	(1)
Systematic Sampling	94	(1)
Cluster Sampling	95	(1)
Sample Size in Quantitative Research	95	(2)
Potential for Harm to Participants	95	(1)
The Need for Pilot Studies	96	(1)
Number of Subgroups to Be Examined	96	(1)
Importance of Precise Results	96	(1)
Statistical Significance	97	(1)
A Table of Suggested Sample Sizes	97	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 11	97	(2)
Participant Selection in Qualitative Research	99	(10)
Purposive Sampling	99	(5)
Criterion Sampling	99	(1)
Random Purposive Sampling	100	(1)
Typical Case Sampling	100	(1)
Extreme or Deviant Sampling	101	(1)
Intensity Sampling	101	(1)
Maximum Variation Sampling	102	(1)
Homogeneous Sampling	102	(1)
Opportunistic Sampling	102	(1)
Stratified Purposive Sampling	103	(1)
Snowball Sampling	103	(1)
Combination Purposive Sampling	104	(1)
Improving Convenience Sampling	104	(2)
Sample Size in Qualitative Research	106	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 12	107	(2)
Part C Issues in Instrumentation	109	(26)
Instrumentation in Quantitative Research	111	(10)
Standardization and Objectivity of Instrumentation	111	(1)
Social Desirability	111	(1)
Reliability and Internal Consistency	111	(3)
The Concept of Reliability in Measurement	111	(1)
Test-Retest Reliability	112	(1)
Internal Consistency	113	(1)
Comparison of Test--Retest and Internal Consistency Methods	113	(1)
Interobserver Reliability	114	(1)
Validity and Its Relationship to Reliability	114	(1)
Judgmental Validity	115	(1)
Content Validity	115	(1)
Face Validity	115	(1)
Criterion-Related Validity	116	(1)
Construct Validity	117	(2)
Distinguishing Between Construct Validity and Criterion-Related Validity	119	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 13	119	(2)
Writing Objective Instruments	121	(8)
Attitude Scales	121	(2)
Planning an Attitude Scale	121	(1)
Writing an Attitude Scale	122	(1)
Pilot Testing an Attitude Scale	123	(1)
Observation Checklists	123	(2)
Planning an Observation Checklist	123	(1)
Writing Observation Checklists	124	(1)
Pilot Testing an Observation Checklist	124	(1)
Achievement Tests	125	(1)
Planning an Achievement Test	125	(1)
Writing Achievement Test Items	125	(1)
Pilot Testing an Achievement Test	126	(1)
Concluding Comments	126	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 14	127	(2)
Instrumentation in Qualitative Research	129	(6)
Issues in Interviewer Selection and Behavior	129	(1)
Matching Interviewers and Participants	129	(1)
Interviewer Self-Disclosure	130	(1)
Devising Interview Protocols	130	(4)
Semi-Structured, Open-Ended Interviews	131	(1)
Initial Questions to Establish Rapport	131	(1)
Using Previously Developed Interview Protocols	131	(1)
Having Interview Protocols Reviewed	132	(1)
Pilot Testing Interview Protocols	132	(1)
Formulating Questions about Demographics	132	(1)
Recording Responses and Note Taking	133	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 15	134	(1)
Part D Techniques for Data Analysis	135	(34)
Descriptive Statistics for Quantitative and Qualitative Research	137	(10)
Describing Nominal Data	137	(1)
Describing Ordinal Data	138	(1)
Describing Ratio and Interval Data	139	(5)
The Mean and Median	139	(2)
The Standard Deviation and Interquartile Range	141	(3)
Exercise for Chapter 16	144	(3)
Correlational Statistics for Quantitative Research	147	(6)
Describing the Strength of a Relationship	149	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 17	150	(3)
Inferential Statistics for Quantitative Research	153	(8)
Margins of Error	153	(1)
The Null Hypothesis	154	(1)
The Chi Square Test	155	(1)
The t Test	156	(1)
The t Test for Means	156	(1)
The t Test for Correlation Coefficients	157	(1)
The F Test (ANOVA)	157	(2)
Statistical Versus Practical Significance	159	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 18	159	(2)
A Closer Look at Data Analysis in Qualitative Research	161	(8)
Self-Disclosure and Bracketing in Data Analysis	161	(1)
A Closer Look at the Grounded Theory Approach	162	(2)
A Closer Look at Consensual Qualitative Approach	164	(2)
Exercise for Chapter 19	166	(3)
Part E Conducting Experiments	169	(26)
Introduction to Experimentation and Threats to External Validity	171	(8)
Controlling the Hawthorne Effect in Experimentation	171	(1)
Using Multiple Independent and Dependent Variables	172	(1)
External Validity of Experiments	173	(3)
Selection Bias	173	(1)
Reactive Effects of Experimental Arrangements	174	(1)
Reactive Effects of Testing	175	(1)
Obtrusiveness of Measurement	175	(1)
Multiple-Treatment Interference	176	(1)
Concluding Comments about External Validity	176	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 20	176	(3)
Threats to Internal Validity and True Experiments	179	(8)
History	179	(1)
Controlling History with a True Experiment	180	(1)
Maturation	180	(1)
Instrumentation	181	(1)
Testing	181	(1)
Statistical Regression	181	(1)
Selection	182	(1)
True Experimental Designs	183	(1)
Concluding Comments	184	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 21	184	(3)
Pre-Experiments and Quasi-Experiments	187	(8)
Pre-Experiments	187	(5)
Quasi-Experimental Designs	189	(3)
Concluding Comments	192	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 22	192	(3)
Part F Putting It Together	195	(10)
Writing Reports of Empirical Research	197	(8)
The Abstract	198	(1)
The Introduction and Literature Review	198	(1)
The Method Section	199	(1)
The Results Section	199	(2)
The Discussion Section	201	(2)
References	203	(1)
Exercise for Chapter 23	203	(2)
Appendix A Increasing the Response Rates to Mailed Surveys	205	(2)
Appendix B A Closer Look at Interpreting Correlation Coefficients	207	(4)
Appendix C Alternative Approaches to Qualitative Research	211	(4)
Appendix D An Overview of Program Evaluation	215	(4)
Appendix E Ethical Issues in Conducting Research	219	(2)
References	221	(6)
Model Literature Review 1 Happiness of Mexican Americans	227	(4)
Model Literature Review 2 Factors Influencing Evaluations of Web Site Information	231	(4)
Model Literature Review 3 The Significance of Parental Depressed Mood for Young Adolescents' Emotional and Family Experiences	235	(4)
Table 1: Table of Random Numbers	239	(1)
Table 2: Table of Recommended Sample Sizes	240	(1)
Index	241