Dental Radiography : Principles and Techniques

by Haring & Jansen Howerton

• ISBN13: 9780721615752
• ISBN10: 0721615759
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-12-05
• Publisher: ELSEVIER SAUNDERS PUBLISHING

Summary

This popular text thoroughly prepares you for the safe and effective use of radiation in the dental office. It not only provides comprehensive coverage of the essential principles of radiation, but also includes complete technical instruction in a great student-friendly format.

Table of Contents

PART 1 RADIATION BASICS
Radiation History	2	(7)
Dentistry and X-radiation	3	(1)
Basic Terminology	3	(1)
Importance of Dental Radiographs	3	(1)
Discovery of X-radiation	3	(2)
Roentgen and the Discovery of X-rays	3	(1)
Earlier Experimentation	4	(1)
Pioneers in Dental X-radiation	5	(1)
History of Dental X-ray Equipment	5	(1)
History of Dental X-ray Film	6	(1)
History of Dental Radiographic Techniques	7	(2)
Radiation Physics	9	(19)
Fundamental Concepts	10	(5)
Atomic and Molecular Structure	10	(2)
Ionization, Radiation, and Radioactivity	12	(1)
Ionizing Radiation	13	(2)
X-radiation	15	(1)
X-ray Machine	15	(4)
Component Parts	15	(2)
X-ray Tube	17	(1)
X-ray Generating Apparatus	17	(2)
Production of X-radiation	19	(2)
Production of Dental X-rays	19	(1)
Types of X-rays Produced	20	(1)
Definitions of X-radiation	20	(1)
Interactions of X-radiation	21	(7)
No Interaction	21	(1)
Absorption of Energy and Photoelectric Effect	21	(1)
Compton Scatter	22	(1)
Coherent Scatter	22	(6)
Radiation Characteristics	28	(10)
X-ray Beam Quality	29	(2)
Voltage and Kilovoltage	29	(1)
Kilovoltage Peak	29	(1)
Film Density and Kilovoltage Peak	30	(1)
Film Contrast and Kilovoltage Peak	30	(1)
Exposure Time and Kilovoltage Peak	30	(1)
X-ray Beam Quantity	31	(1)
Amperage and Milliamperage	31	(1)
Milliampere-Seconds	32	(1)
Film Density and Milliamperage	32	(1)
Exposure Time and Milliamperage	32	(1)
X-ray Beam Intensity	32	(6)
Kilovoltage Peak	33	(1)
Milliamperage	33	(1)
Exposure Time	33	(1)
Distance	33	(1)
Inverse Square Law	33	(1)
Half-Value Layer	34	(4)
Radiation Biology	38	(13)
Radiation Injury	39	(3)
Mechanisms of Injury	39	(1)
Theories of Radiation Injury	40	(1)
Dose-Response Curve	40	(1)
Stochastic and Nonstochastic Radiation Effects	40	(1)
Sequence of Radiation Injury	41	(1)
Determining Factors for Radiation Injury	41	(1)
Radiation Effects	42	(1)
Short-Term and Long-Term Effects	42	(1)
Somatic and Genetic Effects	42	(1)
Radiation Effects on Cells	43	(1)
Radiation Effects on Tissues and Organs	43	(1)
Radiation Measurements	43	(2)
Units of Measurement	43	(1)
Exposure Measurement	43	(1)
Dose Measurement	44	(1)
Dose Equivalent Measurement	44	(1)
Measurements Used in Dental Radiography	45	(1)
Radiation Risks	45	(6)
Sources of Radiation Exposure	45	(1)
Risk and Risk Estimates	45	(1)
Dental Radiation and Exposure Risks	46	(1)
Patient Exposure and Dose	46	(1)
Risk versus Benefit of Dental Radiographs	46	(5)
Radiation Protection	51	(15)
Patient Protection	52	(7)
Before Exposure	52	(1)
During Exposure	53	(5)
After Exposure	58	(1)
Operator Protection	59	(1)
Protection Guidelines	59	(1)
Radiation Monitoring	60	(1)
Radiation Exposure Guidelines	60	(1)
Radiation Safety Legislation	60	(1)
Maximum Permissible Dose	61	(1)
Maximum Accumulated Dose	61	(1)
ALARA Concept	61	(1)
Radiation Protection and Patient Education	61	(5)
PART 2 EQUIPMENT, FILM, AND PROCESSING BASICS
Dental X-ray Equipment	66	(8)
Dental X-ray Machines	67	(2)
Performance Standards	67	(1)
Types of Machines	67	(1)
Component Parts	67	(2)
Dental X-ray Film Holders and Beam Alignment Devices	69	(5)
Types of Film Holders	69	(1)
Types of Beam Alignment Devices	69	(5)
Dental X-ray Film	74	(15)
Dental X-ray Film Composition and Latent Image	75	(2)
Film Composition	75	(1)
Latent Image Formation	76	(1)
Types of Dental X-ray film	77	(8)
Intraoral Film	77	(4)
Extraoral Film	81	(3)
Duplicating Film	84	(1)
Film Storage and Protection	85	(4)
Dental X-ray Image Characteristics	89	(12)
Dental X-ray Image Characteristics	90	(1)
Visual Characteristics	90	(4)
Density	91	(1)
Contrast	92	(2)
Geometric Characteristics	94	(7)
Sharpness	94	(1)
Magnification	95	(1)
Distortion	96	(5)
Dental X-ray Film Processing	101	(27)
Film Processing	102	(4)
Film Processing Fundamentals	102	(2)
Film Processing Steps	104	(1)
Film Processing Solutions	104	(2)
The Darkroom	106	(3)
Room Requirements	106	(1)
Equipment Requirements	107	(2)
Manual Film Processing	109	(4)
Equipment Accessories	109	(1)
Step-by-Step Procedures	110	(1)
Care and Maintenance	110	(3)
Automatic Film Processing	113	(2)
Component Parts of Automatic Processor	113	(1)
Step-by-Step Procedures	114	(1)
Care and Maintenance	114	(1)
Film Duplication	115	(1)
Equipment Requirements	115	(1)
Step-by-Step Procedures	115	(1)
Processing Problems and Solutions	116	(12)
Time and Temperature	116	(1)
Chemical Contamination	117	(2)
Film Handling	119	(3)
Lighting	122	(6)
Quality Assurance in the Dental Office	128	(12)
Quality Control Tests	129	(5)
Equipment and Supplies	129	(1)
Film Processing	130	(4)
Quality Administration Procedures	134	(1)
Operator Competence	135	(5)
PART 3 DENTAL RADIOGRAPHER BASICS
Dental Radiographs and the Dental Radiographer	140	(5)
Dental Radiographs	141	(1)
Importance of Dental Radiographs	141	(1)
Uses of Dental Radiographs	141	(1)
Benefits of Dental Radiographs	141	(1)
Information Found on Dental Radiographs	141	(1)
The Dental Radiographer	142	(3)
Knowledge and Skill Requirements	142	(1)
Duties and Responsibilities	142	(1)
Professional Goals	142	(3)
Patient Relations and the Dental Radiographer	145	(5)
Interpersonal Skills	146	(1)
Communication Skills	146	(1)
Facilitation Skills	147	(1)
Patient Relations	147	(3)
First Impressions and Patient Relations	147	(1)
Chairside Manner and Patient Relations	148	(1)
Attitude and Patient Relations	148	(2)
Patient Education and the Dental Radiographer	150	(6)
Importance of Patient Education	151	(1)
Methods of Patient Education	151	(1)
Common Questions and Answers	151	(5)
Necessity Questions	152	(1)
Exposure Questions	152	(1)
Safety Questions	153	(1)
Miscellaneous Questions	153	(3)
Legal Issues and the Dental Radiographer	156	(6)
Legal Issues and Dental Radiography	157	(1)
Federal and State Regulations	157	(1)
Licensure Requirements	157	(1)
Legal Issues and the Dental Patient	157	(5)
Risk Management	157	(1)
Malpractice Issues	158	(1)
Patient Records	159	(1)
Patients Who Refuse Dental Radiographs	159	(3)
Infection Control and the Dental Radiographer	162	(14)
Infection Control Basics	163	(1)
Rationale for Infection Control	163	(1)
Infection Control Terminology	163	(1)
Guidelines for Infection Control Practices	164	(1)
Protective Attire and Barrier Techniques	164	(1)
Handwashing and Care of Hands	165	(1)
Sterilization or Disinfection of Instruments	165	(1)
Cleaning and Disinfection of Dental Unit and Environmental Surfaces	165	(1)
Infection Control in Dental Radiography	165	(11)
Infection Control Procedures Used Before Exposure	166	(2)
Infection Control Procedures Used During Exposure	168	(1)
Infection Control Procedures Used After Exposure	168	(1)
Infection Control Procedures Used for Processing	169	(7)
PART 4 TECHNIQUE BASICS
Introduction to Radiographic Examinations	176	(5)
Intraoral Radiographic Examination	177	(1)
Types of Intraoral Radiographic Examinations	177	(1)
Complete Mouth Radiographic Series	177	(1)
Diagnostic Criteria for Intraoral Radiographs	178	(1)
Extraoral Radiographic Examination	178	(1)
Prescribing of Dental Radiographs	178	(3)
Paralleling Technique	181	(35)
Basic Concepts	182	(4)
Terminology	182	(1)
Principles of Paralleling Technique	183	(1)
Film Holders	183	(2)
Film for Paralleling Technique	185	(1)
Rules for Paralleling Technique	185	(1)
Step-by-Step Procedures	186	(7)
Patient Preparation	186	(1)
Equipment Preparation	186	(3)
Exposure Sequence for Film Placements	189	(1)
Film Placement for Paralleling Technique	190	(3)
Modifications in Paralleling Technique	193	(17)
Shallow Palate	193	(1)
Bony Growths	193	(15)
Mandibular Premolar Region	208	(2)
Advantages and Disadvantages	210	(6)
Advantages of Paralleling Technique	210	(1)
Disadvantages of Paralleling Technique	210	(6)
Bisecting Technique	216	(37)
Basic Concepts	217	(6)
Terminology	217	(1)
Principles of Bisecting Technique	217	(2)
Film Stabilization	219	(1)
Film for Bisecting Technique	219	(1)
Angulation of Position-Indicating Device	220	(3)
Rules for Bisecting Technique	223	(1)
Step-by-Step Procedures	223	(25)
Patient Preparation	224	(1)
Equipment Preparation	224	(1)
Exposure Sequence for Film Placements	224	(2)
Film Placement	226	(22)
Advantages and Disadvantages	248	(5)
Advantages of Bisecting Technique	248	(1)
Disadvantages of Bisecting Technique	248	(5)
Bite-Wing Technique	253	(20)
Basic Concepts	254	(5)
Terminology	254	(1)
Principles of Bite-Wing Technique	255	(1)
Film Holder and Bite-Wing Tab	255	(1)
Film for Bite-Wing Technique	256	(1)
Angulation of Position-Indicating Device	257	(1)
Rules for Bite-Wing Technique	257	(2)
Step-by-Step Procedures	259	(1)
Patient Preparation	259	(1)
Equipment Preparation	259	(1)
Exposure Sequence for Film Placements	259	(1)
Film Placement for Bite-Wing Technique	260	(1)
Vertical Bite-Wings	260	(1)
Modifications of Bite-Wing Technique	260	(13)
Edentulous Spaces	268	(1)
Bony Growths	268	(5)
Exposure and Technique Errors	273	(14)
Film Exposure Errors	274	(1)
Exposure Problems	274	(1)
Time and Exposure Factor Problems	274	(1)
Technique Errors (Periapical Films)	275	(3)
Film Placement Problems	275	(1)
Angulation Problems	276	(1)
PID Alignment Problems	277	(1)
Technique Errors (Bite-Wing Films)	278	(3)
Film Placement Problems	278	(1)
Angulation Problems	279	(1)
PID Alignment Problems	280	(1)
Miscellaneous Technique Errors	281	(6)
Film Bending	281	(1)
Film Creasing	281	(1)
Phalangioma	282	(1)
Double Exposure	282	(1)
Movement	282	(1)
Reversed Film	282	(5)
Occlusal and Localization Techniques	287	(17)
Occlusal Technique	288	(7)
Basic Concepts	288	(1)
Step-by-Step Procedures	288	(7)
Localization Techniques	295	(9)
Basic Concepts	295	(2)
Step-by-Step Procedures	297	(7)
Panoramic Radiography	304	(19)
Basic Concepts	305	(5)
Purpose and Use	306	(1)
Fundamentals	306	(1)
Equipment	307	(3)
Step-by-Step Procedures	310	(3)
Equipment Preparation	311	(1)
Patient Preparation	311	(1)
Patient Positioning	311	(2)
Common Errors	313	(4)
Patient Preparation Errors	313	(1)
Patient Positioning Errors	313	(4)
Advantages and Disadvantages	317	(6)
Advantages of Panoramic Radiography	317	(2)
Disadvantages of Panoramic Radiography	319	(4)
Extraoral Radiography	323	(20)
Basic Concepts	324	(2)
Purpose and Use	324	(1)
Equipment	324	(2)
Step-by-Step Procedures	326	(1)
Equipment Preparation	326	(1)
Patient Preparation	326	(1)
Patient Positioning	326	(1)
Extraoral Projection Techniques	327	(16)
Lateral Jaw Radiography	327	(1)
Skull Radiography	328	(9)
Temporomandibular Joint Radiography	337	(1)
Cone-Beam Technology	337	(6)
Digital Radiography	343	(14)
Basic Concepts	344	(4)
Terminology	344	(1)
Purpose and Use	344	(1)
Fundamentals	345	(1)
Radiation Exposure	346	(1)
Equipment	347	(1)
Types of Digital Imaging	348	(2)
Direct Digital Imaging	350	(1)
Indirect Digital Imaging	350	(1)
Step-by-Step Procedures	350	(1)
Sensor Preparation	350	(1)
Sensor Placement	351	(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages	351	(6)
Advantages of Digital Radiography	351	(2)
Disadvantages of Digital Radiography	353	(4)
Radiography of Patients with Special Needs	357	(11)
Patients with the Gag Reflex	358	(1)
Patient Management	358	(1)
Extreme Cases of Gag Reflex	359	(1)
Patients with Disabilities	359	(1)
Physical Disabilities	360	(1)
Developmental Disabilities	360	(1)
Patients with Specific Dental Needs	360	(8)
Pediatric Patients	361	(1)
Endodontic Patients	362	(1)
Edentulous Patients	362	(6)
PART 5 NORMAL ANATOMY AND FILM MOUNTING BASICS
Normal Anatomy: Intraoral Films	368	(27)
Definitions of General Terms	369	(4)
Types of Bone	369	(1)
Prominences of Bone	370	(1)
Spaces and Depressions in Bone	371	(1)
Miscellaneous Terms	372	(1)
Normal Anatomic Landmarks	373	(15)
Bony Landmarks of the Maxilla	373	(9)
Bony Landmarks of the Mandible	382	(6)
Normal Tooth Anatomy	388	(7)
Tooth Structure	388	(1)
Supporting Structures	389	(6)
Film Mounting and Viewing	395	(13)
Film Mounting	396	(7)
Basic Concepts	396	(2)
Normal Anatomy and Film Mounting	398	(1)
Film Mounting Methods	398	(1)
Step-by-Step Procedure	399	(4)
Film Viewing	403	(5)
Basic Concepts	403	(1)
Step-by-Step Procedure	404	(4)
Normal Anatomy: Panoramic Films	408	(14)
Normal Anatomic Landmarks	409	(6)
Bony Landmarks of Maxilla and Surrounding Structures	409	(3)
Bony Landmarks of Mandible and Surrounding Structures	412	(3)
Air Space Images Seen on Panoramic Radiographs	415	(1)
Soft Tissue Images Seen on Panoramic Radiographs	416	(6)
PART 6 RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION BASICS
Introduction to Radiographic Interpretation	422	(4)
Basic Concepts	423	(1)
Interpretation Terminology	423	(1)
Importance of Interpretation	423	(1)
Guidelines	423	(3)
Who Interprets Radiographs?	423	(1)
Interpretation versus Diagnosis	423	(1)
When and Where Are Radiographs Interpreted?	424	(1)
Interpretation and Patient Education	424	(2)
Descriptive Terminology	426	(13)
Definition and Uses	427	(1)
What Is Descriptive Terminology?	427	(1)
Why Use Descriptive Terminology?	427	(1)
Descriptive Terminology versus Diagnosis	427	(1)
Review of Basic Terms	427	(12)
Radiograph versus X-ray	427	(1)
Radiolucent versus Radiopaque	427	(1)
Terms Used to Describe Radiolucent Lesions	428	(4)
Terms Used to Describe Radiopaque Lesions	432	(7)
Identification of Restorations, Dental Materials, and Foreign Objects	439	(18)
Identification of Restorations	440	(6)
Amalgam Restorations	440	(1)
Gold Restorations	441	(1)
Stainless Steel and Chrome Crowns	442	(1)
Post and Core Restorations	443	(1)
Porcelain Restorations	443	(2)
Composite Restorations	445	(1)
Acrylic Restorations	445	(1)
Identification of Materials Used in Dentistry	446	(2)
Materials Used in Restorative Dentistry	446	(1)
Materials Used in Endodontics	446	(1)
Materials Used in Prosthodontics	446	(2)
Materials Used in Orthodontics	448	(1)
Materials Used in Oral Surgery	448	(1)
Identification of Miscellaneous Objects	448	(9)
Jewelry	448	(4)
Eyeglasses and Napkin Chain	452	(5)
Interpretation of Dental Caries	457	(11)
Description of Caries	458	(1)
Detection of Caries	458	(1)
Clinical Examination	458	(1)
Radiographic Examination	458	(1)
Interpretation of Caries	459	(1)
Interpretation Tips	459	(1)
Factors Influencing Caries Interpretation	459	(1)
Radiographic Classification of Caries	459	(9)
Interproximal Caries	459	(1)
Occlusal Caries	460	(2)
Buccal and Lingual Caries	462	(1)
Root Surface Caries	462	(2)
Recurrent Caries	464	(1)
Rampant Caries	464	(4)
Interpretation of Periodontal Disease	468	(13)
Description of the Periodontium	469	(1)
Description of Periodontal Disease	470	(1)
Detection of Periodontal Disease	470	(1)
Clinical Examination	470	(1)
Radiographic Examination	470	(1)
Radiographic Interpretation of Periodontal Disease	471	(10)
Bone Loss	471	(2)
Classification of Periodontal Disease	473	(2)
Predisposing Factors	475	(6)
Interpretation of Trauma and Pulpal and Periapical Lesions	481	(12)
Radiographic Changes Caused by Trauma	482	(2)
Fractures	482	(1)
Injuries	483	(1)
Radiographic Changes Caused by Resorption	484	(1)
External Resorption	484	(1)
Internal Resorption	485	(1)
Radiographic Features of Pulpal Lesions	485	(2)
Pulpal Sclerosis	485	(1)
Pulpal Obliteration	485	(1)
Pulp Stones	485	(2)
Radiographic Features of Periapical Lesions	487	(6)
Periapical Radiolucencies	487	(2)
Periapical Radiopacities	489	(4)
Glossary	493