The Dimensions of Poverty | p. 1 |
Views of Inequality and Poverty | p. 1 |
The Continuing Controversy | p. 1 |
What to do? | p. 2 |
Too little government assistance? | p. 3 |
Or too much aid? | p. 3 |
Equity and efficiency | p. 4 |
Causes and Cures | p. 4 |
Flawed character | p. 4 |
Restricted opportunity | p. 6 |
Big Brother | p. 7 |
Self-interest | p. 7 |
Policy implications | p. 8 |
Historical perspectives | p. 8 |
Inequality | p. 11 |
Differing explanations | p. 11 |
Equity versus efficiency | p. 11 |
Dimensions of Well-Being | p. 12 |
Income versus wealth | p. 13 |
Transitory versus permanent income | p. 13 |
Life-cycle dynamics | p. 14 |
Public provisions | p. 14 |
Social equality | p. 15 |
Discrimination | p. 15 |
Poverty: Drawing a Line | p. 16 |
The absolute approach | p. 16 |
The relative approach | p. 17 |
Summary | p. 20 |
Further Reading | p. 21 |
Counting the Poor | p. 22 |
The Distribution of Income | p. 22 |
The Official Poverty Line | p. 24 |
The concept of minimum needs | p. 25 |
Units of measure | p. 26 |
Poverty thresholds | p. 27 |
The CEA line | p. 27 |
The SSA index | p. 29 |
The current poverty index | p. 29 |
The Number of Poor People | p. 32 |
The official poverty count | p. 33 |
The poverty rate | p. 33 |
How poor? | p. 35 |
Measurement Problems | p. 35 |
Too low a standard? | p. 35 |
Too high a standard? | p. 36 |
In-kind income | p. 36 |
Underreporting | p. 38 |
Income mobility | p. 39 |
The uncounted poor | p. 40 |
Latent poverty | p. 40 |
The call for revision | p. 41 |
Characteristics of the Poor | p. 42 |
Age and family status | p. 42 |
Geography and residence | p. 43 |
Labor force status | p. 45 |
Similarities and differences | p. 46 |
Summary | p. 47 |
Further Reading | p. 47 |
Web Links | p. 48 |
Causes of Poverty | p. 49 |
Labor Force Participation | p. 49 |
Income Sources | p. 49 |
Two-parent Families | p. 50 |
Female-headed families | p. 52 |
Labor Force Status | p. 54 |
Participation and poverty | p. 54 |
The nonparticipants | p. 55 |
Unemployment | p. 57 |
The Process of Economic Deterioration | p. 58 |
Subemployment | p. 59 |
Discouraged workers | p. 59 |
Other marginally attached workers | p. 60 |
Underemployment | p. 60 |
Subemployment | p. 61 |
Poverty implications | p. 61 |
The Question of Causation | p. 62 |
Do the poor really try? | p. 62 |
Macroeconomic forces | p. 65 |
Poverty Impact of Cyclical Unemployment | p. 68 |
Summary | p. 69 |
Further Reading | p. 72 |
Web Links | p. 72 |
The Unemployment-Inflation Trade-Off | p. 73 |
The Phillips curve | p. 73 |
The Working Poor | p. 76 |
Work Experience and Poverty | p. 76 |
Weeks of work and hours | p. 76 |
The working poor | p. 77 |
How much work? | p. 79 |
More measurement problems | p. 79 |
The significance of secondary workers | p. 80 |
Searching for Explanations | p. 82 |
Minimum-Wage Jobs | p. 82 |
Low Wages | p. 84 |
Poor jobs | p. 86 |
Why Wages Are So Low | p. 88 |
Summary | p. 89 |
Further Reading | p. 90 |
Web Links | p. 90 |
Does Prosperity Trickle Down? | p. 91 |
The trickle-down perspective | p. 91 |
The dual labor-market perspective | p. 92 |
Age and Health | p. 93 |
Age | p. 93 |
Declining poverty rate | p. 93 |
Diversity among the aged | p. 95 |
Sources of economic support | p. 96 |
New poverty or continuing poverty? | p. 99 |
Rising health costs | p. 102 |
Tax burdens | p. 103 |
Making do | p. 104 |
Assessing causation | p. 104 |
Health | p. 105 |
Health costs | p. 105 |
Causality | p. 105 |
Health insurance | p. 107 |
Intergenerational Links | p. 108 |
Mental Health | p. 108 |
Summary | p. 109 |
Further Reading | p. 109 |
Web Links | p. 110 |
Family Size and Structure | p. 111 |
Family Size | p. 111 |
Poverty rates | p. 112 |
The potential impact | p. 112 |
Declining family size | p. 114 |
The causal relation | p. 114 |
Family Structure | p. 115 |
Changing family patterns | p. 115 |
Economic implications | p. 117 |
Poverty impact | p. 118 |
Causation | p. 119 |
Summary | p. 123 |
Further Reading | p. 124 |
Web Links | p. 124 |
The Underclass: Culture and Race | p. 125 |
The Culture of Poverty | p. 125 |
Norms versus traits | p. 126 |
A question of opportunities | p. 128 |
Wilson's Underclass Theory | p. 129 |
Testing the theory | p. 129 |
Direct tests of aspirations | p. 130 |
Indirect tests of predicted behavior | p. 131 |
Assessment | p. 133 |
The Racial Inferiority Theory | p. 133 |
Intelligence and status | p. 135 |
IQ scores | p. 136 |
Resolving the issues | p. 137 |
Other complications | p. 138 |
Summary | p. 139 |
Further Reading | p. 140 |
Web Links | p. 140 |
Education and Ability | p. 141 |
Education and Income | p. 141 |
Poverty rates | p. 142 |
Labor-market effects | p. 142 |
Increasing skill premiums | p. 142 |
Paths of Causation | p. 144 |
Overlapping causes | p. 144 |
Education as a sorting device | p. 146 |
The content of education | p. 149 |
Ability and Income | p. 149 |
Which ability matters? | p. 150 |
IQ and schooling | p. 150 |
Summary | p. 152 |
Further Reading | p. 153 |
Web Links | p. 153 |
Discrimination in Education | p. 154 |
Discrimination | p. 154 |
Attitudes versus action | p. 155 |
The relevancy standard | p. 155 |
Costs and benefits of discrimination | p. 157 |
Proving discrimination | p. 159 |
Racial Discrimination in Education | p. 159 |
Disparate outcomes | p. 160 |
School segregation | p. 161 |
Equality of facilities | p. 163 |
Inherent inequalities | p. 165 |
Class Discrimination in Education | p. 166 |
School finances | p. 166 |
Educational attainments | p. 167 |
The question of ability | p. 167 |
Sex Discrimination in Education | p. 169 |
Gender segregation | p. 170 |
Graduate degrees | p. 170 |
Summary | p. 172 |
Further Reading | p. 173 |
Web Links | p. 173 |
Discrimination in the Labor Market | p. 174 |
Racial Discrimination in the Labor Market | p. 174 |
Disparities in earnings | p. 175 |
Educational differences | p. 176 |
Components of earnings disparities | p. 178 |
Who discriminates? | p. 182 |
Labor unions | p. 183 |
Employers | p. 185 |
Class Discrimination in the Labor Market | p. 186 |
Sex Discrimination in the Labor Market | p. 187 |
Occupational segregation | p. 188 |
Summary | p. 190 |
Further Reading | p. 191 |
Web Links | p. 191 |
Policy Options | p. 193 |
Welfare Programs | p. 193 |
Welfare versus Social Insurance | p. 194 |
Welfare: The Cash Assistance Programs | p. 196 |
Inadequacies | p. 196 |
Inequities | p. 197 |
Family disincentives | p. 199 |
Work disincentives | p. 200 |
Conflicting welfare goals | p. 203 |
The goal compromise | p. 204 |
Welfare Reforms, 1982-2000 | p. 205 |
State experiments, 1982-1988 | p. 205 |
The family support act of 1988 | p. 206 |
State waivers, 1991-1995 | p. 207 |
PRWOA: The 1996 welfare reforms | p. 207 |
The controversy | p. 209 |
Observed effects | p. 209 |
Welfare: The In-Kind Programs | p. 212 |
Food stamps | p. 212 |
Medicaid | p. 212 |
Housing assistance | p. 213 |
Nutrition programs | p. 213 |
The welfare package | p. 213 |
Revisiting the goal conflict | p. 214 |
Guaranteed income | p. 217 |
Guaranteed jobs | p. 219 |
Workfare | p. 219 |
Edfare | p. 221 |
Promoting families | p. 221 |
The Limits of Welfare | p. 221 |
Summary | p. 223 |
Further Reading | p. 223 |
Web Links | p. 224 |
Social Insurance Programs | p. 225 |
Social Security | p. 225 |
OASDHI programs | p. 226 |
Financing | p. 226 |
Benefits | p. 227 |
Poverty impact | p. 228 |
Medicare | p. 232 |
Hospital insurance | p. 232 |
Supplemental medical insurance | p. 232 |
Poverty impact | p. 233 |
Unemployment Insurance | p. 233 |
Eligibility conditions | p. 233 |
Benefits | p. 234 |
Poverty impact | p. 235 |
Child-Support Enforcement | p. 236 |
Child-support gaps | p. 236 |
Enforcement policies | p. 237 |
Poverty impact | p. 238 |
Summary | p. 240 |
Further Reading | p. 241 |
Web Links | p. 241 |
Employment Policies | p. 242 |
Aggregate Demand Policies | p. 243 |
Demand management | p. 243 |
Full employment versus price stability | p. 243 |
The quality of jobs | p. 244 |
Training Programs | p. 246 |
Job vacancies | p. 246 |
The CETA program | p. 247 |
JTPA programs | p. 248 |
Workforce Investment Act | p. 248 |
The WIN program | p. 249 |
The JOBS program | p. 250 |
State block grants | p. 250 |
Generic problems | p. 251 |
Tax Credits | p. 251 |
Employer credits | p. 252 |
Employee credits | p. 253 |
Family Policy | p. 255 |
A Coordinated Approach | p. 255 |
Summary | p. 256 |
Further Reading | p. 257 |
Web Links | p. 257 |
Equal Opportunity Policies | p. 258 |
Equal Employment Opportunity Policies | p. 259 |
The EEOC | p. 260 |
The OFCCP | p. 260 |
Quotas and guidelines | p. 261 |
Reverse discrimination | p. 262 |
Comparable worth | p. 264 |
Class-based preferences | p. 264 |
Equal Education Opportunity Policies | p. 265 |
Limits on federal policy | p. 265 |
De jure versus de facto segregation | p. 266 |
Housing patterns | p. 266 |
Busing | p. 269 |
Fiscal disparities | p. 270 |
Compensatory education | p. 273 |
College admissions | p. 273 |
School-based quotas | p. 275 |
Summary | p. 276 |
Further Reading | p. 277 |
Web Links | p. 277 |
Directions and Prospects | p. 278 |
The Causes of Poverty | p. 278 |
Policy Directions | p. 280 |
Welfare reform | p. 281 |
Economic prosperity | p. 282 |
Social insurance | p. 282 |
Education and training | p. 283 |
Macroeconomic policy | p. 283 |
Equal opportunity | p. 284 |
Causes, Attitudes, and Policy | p. 284 |
Index | p. 287 |
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