Electric Vehicle Technology Explained

by James Larminie (Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK); John Lowry (Acenti Designs Ltd., UK)

• ISBN13: 9780470851630
• ISBN10: 0470851635
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-12-01
• Publisher: WILEY

Summary

While the classic battery electric car continues to make only a small impact on the automobile market, other types of electric vehicle, especially hybrids, have made significant and promising improvements. Moreover, small battery electric vehicles such as bicycles and mobility aids are also developing well. Presenting more than 160 diagrams and pictures, this book explains the science and technology behind these important developments, and also introduces the issues that underpin the design and performance modelling of electric vehicles. Electric Vehicle Technology Explained: Encompasses a full range of electric vehicles: bicycles, mobility aids, delivery vehicles and buses - not just cars. Covers all the basic technology relating to electric road vehicles - batteries, super capacitors, flywheels, fuel cells, electric motors and their controllers, and system design. Considers the environmental benefits and disadvantages of electric vehicles and their component devices. Includes case studies of a range of batteries, hybrids and fuel cell powered vehicles, from bicycles to buses. Offers many MATLABr examples explaining the design of appropriate computer prediction models. Professionals, researchers and engineers in the electric vehicle industry as well as advanced students in electrical and mechanical engineering will benefit from this comprehensive coverage of electric vehicle technology.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments	xi
Abbreviations	xiii
Symbols	xv
1 Introduction	1	(22)
1.1 A Brief History	1	(4)
1.1.1 Early days	1	(2)
1.1.2 The relative decline of electric vehicles after 1910	3	(2)
1.1.3 Uses for which battery electric vehicles have remained popular	5	(1)
1.2 Developments Towards the End of the 20th Century	5	(2)
1.3 Types of Electric Vehicle in Use Today	7	(13)
1.3.1 Battery electric vehicles	8	(1)
1.3.2 The IC engine/electric hybrid vehicle	9	(6)
1.3.3 Fuelled electric vehicles	15	(3)
1.3.4 Electric vehicles using supply lines	18	(1)
1.3.5 Solar powered vehicles	18	(1)
1.3.6 Electric vehicles which use flywheels or super capacitors	18	(2)
1.4 Electric Vehicles for the Future	20	(1)
Bibliography	21	(2)
2 Batteries	23	(46)
2.1 Introduction	23	(1)
2.2 Battery Parameters	24	(6)
2.2.1 Cell and battery voltages	24	(1)
2.2.2 Charge (or Amphour) capacity	25	(1)
2.2.3 Energy stored	26	(1)
2.2.4 Specific energy	27	(1)
2.2.5 Energy density	27	(1)
2.2.6 Specific power	28	(1)
2.2.7 Amphour (or charge) efficiency	28	(1)
2.2.8 Energy efficiency	29	(1)
2.2.9 Self discharge rates	29	(1)
2.2.10 Battery geometry	29	(1)
2.2.11 Battery temperature, heating and cooling needs	29	(1)
2.2.12 Battery life and number of deep cycles	29	(1)
2.3 Lead Acid Batteries	30	(5)
2.3.1 Lead acid battery basics	30	(2)
2.3.2 Special characteristics of lead acid batteries	32	(2)
2.3.3 Battery life and maintenance	34	(1)
2.3.4 Battery charging	35	(1)
2.3.5 Summary of lead acid batteries	35	(1)
2.4 Nickel-based Batteries	35	(6)
2.4.1 Introduction	35	(1)
2.4.2 Nickel cadmium	36	(2)
2.4.3 Nickel metal hydride batteries	38	(3)
2.5 Sodium-based Batteries	41	(3)
2.5.1 Introduction	41	(1)
2.5.2 Sodium sulphur batteries	41	(1)
2.5.3 Sodium metal chloride (Zebra) batteries	42	(2)
2.6 Lithium Batteries	44	(2)
2.6.1 Introduction	44	(1)
2.6.2 The lithium polymer battery	45	(1)
2.6.3 The lithium ion battery	45	(1)
2.7 Metal Air Batteries	46	(2)
2.7.1 Introduction	46	(1)
2.7.2 The aluminium air battery	46	(1)
2.7.3 The zinc air battery	47	(1)
2.8 Battery Charging	48	(3)
2.8.1 Battery chargers	48	(1)
2.8.2 Charge equalisation	49	(2)
2.9 The Designer's Choice of Battery	51	(2)
2.9.1 Introduction	51	(1)
2.9.2 Batteries which are currently available commercially	52	(1)
2.10 Use of Batteries in Hybrid Vehicles	53	(1)
2.10.1 Introduction	53	(1)
2.10.2 Internal combustion/battery electric hybrids	53	(1)
2.10.3 Battery/battery electric hybrids	53	(1)
2.10.4 Combinations using flywheels	54	(1)
2.10.5 Complex hybrids	54	(1)
2.11 Battery Modelling	54	(12)
2.11.1 The purpose of battery modelling	54	(1)
2.11.2 Battery equivalent circuit	55	(2)
2.11.3 Modelling battery capacity	57	(4)
2.11.4 Simulation a battery at a set power	61	(3)
2.11.5 Calculating the Peukert Coefficient	64	(1)
2.11.6 Approximate battery sizing	65	(1)
2.12 In Conclusion	66	(1)
References	67	(2)
3 Alternative and Novel Energy Sources and Stores	69	(12)
3.1 Introduction	69	(1)
3.2 Solar Photovoltaics	69	(2)
3.3 Wind Power	71	(1)
3.4 Flywheels	72	(2)
3.5 Super Capacitors	74	(3)
3.6 Supply Rails	77	(3)
References	80	(1)
4 Fuel Cells	81	(30)
4.1 Fuel cells, a Real Option?	81	(2)
4.2 Hydrogen Fuel Cells: Basic Principles	83	(6)
4.2.1 Electrode reactions	83	(1)
4.2.2 Different electrolytes	84	(3)
4.2.3 Fuel cell electrodes	87	(2)
4.3 Fuel Cell Thermodynamics - an Introduction	89	(7)
4.3.1 Fuel cell efficiency and efficiency limits	89	(3)
4.3.2 Efficiency and the fuel cell voltage	92	(2)
4.3.3 Practical fuel cell voltages	94	(1)
4.3.4 The effect of pressure and gas concentration	95	(1)
4.4 Connecting Cells in Series - the Bipolar Plate	96	(5)
4.5 Water Management in the PEM Fuel Cell	101	(4)
4.5.1 Introduction to the water problem	101	(1)
4.5.2 The electrolyte of a PEM fuel cell	101	(3)
4.5.3 Keeping the PEM hydrated	104	(1)
4.6 Thermal Management of the PEM Fuel Cell	105	(2)
4.7 A Complete Fuel Cell System	107	(2)
References	109	(2)
5 Hydrogen Supply	111	(30)
5.1 Introduction	111	(2)
5.2 Fuel Reforming	113	(6)
5.2.1 Fuel cell requirements	113	(1)
5.2.2 Steam reforming	114	(2)
5.2.3 Partial oxidation and autothermal reforming	116	(1)
5.2.4 Further fuel processing: carbon monoxide removal	117	(1)
5.2.5 Practical fuel processing for mobile applications	118	(1)
5.3 Hydrogen Storage I: Storage as Hydrogen	119	(8)
5.3.1 Introduction to the problem	119	(1)
5.3.2 Safety	120	(1)
5.3.3 The storage of hydrogen as a compressed gas	120	(2)
5.3.4 Storage of hydrogen as a liquid	122	(2)
5.3.5 Reversible metal hydride hydrogen stores	124	(2)
5.3.6 Carbon nanofibres	126	(1)
5.3.7 Storage methods compared	127	(1)
5.4 Hydrogen Storage II: Chemical Methods	127	(11)
5.4.1 Introduction	127	(1)
5.4.2 Methanol	128	(2)
5.4.3 Alkali metal hydrides	130	(2)
5.4.4 Sodium borohydride	132	(3)
5.4.5 Ammonia	135	(3)
5.4.6 Storage methods compared	138	(1)
References	138	(3)
6 Electric Machines and their Controllers	141	(42)
6.1 The 'Brushed' DC Electric Motor	141	(14)
6.1.1 Operation of the basic DC motor	141	(2)
6.1.2 Torque speed characteristics	143	(4)
6.1.3 Controlling the brushed DC motor	147	(1)
6.1.4 Providing the magnetic field for DC motors	147	(2)
6.1.5 DC motor efficiency	149	(2)
6.1.6 Motor losses and motor size	151	(2)
6.1.7 Electric motors as brakes	153	(2)
6.2 DC Regulation and Voltage Conversion	155	(11)
6.2.1 Switching devices	155	(2)
6.2.2 Step-down or 'buck' regulators	157	(2)
6.2.3 Step-up or 'boost' switching regulator	159	(3)
6.2.4 Single-phase inverters	162	(3)
6.2.5 Three-phase	165	(1)
6.3 Brushless Electric Motors	166	(9)
6.3.1 Introduction	166	(1)
6.3.2 The brushless DC motor	167	(2)
6.3.3 Switched reluctance motors	169	(4)
6.3.4 The induction motor	173	(2)
6.4 Motor Cooling, Efficiency, Size and Mass	175	(4)
6.4.1 Improving motor efficiency	175	(2)
6.4.2 Motor mass	177	(2)
6.5 Electrical Machines for Hybrid Vehicles	179	(2)
References	181	(2)
7 Electric Vehicle Modelling	183	(30)
7.1 Introduction	183	(1)
7.2 Tractive Effort	184	(4)
7.2.1 Introduction	184	(1)
7.2.2 Rolling resistance force	184	(1)
7.2.3 Aerodynamic drag	185	(1)
7.2.4 Hill climbing force	185	(1)
7.2.5 Acceleration force	185	(2)
7.2.6 Total tractive effort	187	(1)
7.3 Modelling Vehicle Acceleration	188	(8)
7.3.1 Acceleration performance parameters	188	(1)
7.3.2 Modelling the acceleration of an electric scooter	189	(4)
7.3.3 Modelling the acceleration of a small car	193	(3)
7.4 Modelling Electric Vehicle Range	196	(16)
7.4.1 Driving cycles	196	(5)
7.4.2 Range modelling of battery electric vehicles	201	(5)
7.4.3 Constant velocity range modelling	206	(1)
7.4.4 Other uses of simulations	207	(1)
7.4.5 Range modelling of fuel cell vehicles	208	(3)
7.4.6 Range modelling of hybrid electric vehicles	211	(1)
7.5 Simulations: a Summary	212	(1)
References	212	(1)
8 Design Considerations	213	(24)
8.1 Introduction	213	(1)
8.2 Aerodynamic Considerations	213	(5)
8.2.1 Aerodynamics and energy	213	(4)
8.2.2 Body/chassis aerodynamic shape	217	(1)
8.3 Consideration of Rolling Resistance	218	(2)
8.4 Transmission Efficiency	220	(3)
8.5 Consideration of Vehicle Mass	223	(3)
8.6 Electric Vehicle Chassis and Body Design	226	(8)
8.6.1 Body/chassis requirements	226	(1)
8.6.2 Body/chassis layout	227	(1)
8.6.3 Body/chassis strength, rigidity and crash resistance	228	(3)
8.6.4 Designing for stability	231	(1)
8.6.5 Suspension for electric vehicles	231	(1)
8.6.6 Examples of chassis used in modern battery and hybrid electric vehicles	232	(1)
8.6.7 Chassis used in modern fuel cell electric vehicles	232	(2)
8.7 General Issues in Design	234	(3)
8.7.1 Design specifications	234	(1)
8.7.2 Software in the use of electric vehicle design	234	(3)
9 Design of Ancillary Systems	237	(8)
9.1 Introduction	237	(1)
9.2 Heating and Cooling Systems	237	(3)
9.3 Design of the Controls	240	(3)
9.4 Power Steering	243	(1)
9.5 Choice of Tyres	243	(1)
9.6 Wing Mirrors, Aerials and Luggage Racks	243	(1)
9.7 Electric Vehicle Recharging and Refuelling Systems	244	(1)
10 Electric Vehicles and the Environment	245	(16)
10.1 Introduction	245	(1)
10.2 Vehicle Pollution: the Effects	245	(3)
10.3 Vehicles Pollution: a Quantitative Analysis	248	(3)
10.4 Vehicle Pollution in Context	251	(3)
10.5 Alternative and Sustainable Energy Used via the Grid	254	(4)
10.5.1 Solar energy	254	(1)
10.5.2 Wind energy	255	(1)
10.5.3 Hydro energy	255	(1)
10.5.4 Tidal energy	255	(1)
10.5.5 Biomass energy	256	(1)
10.5.6 Geothermal energy	257	(1)
10.5.7 Nuclear energy	257	(1)
10.5.8 Marine current energy	257	(1)
10.5.9 Wave energy	257	(1)
10.6 Using Sustainable Energy with Fuelled Vehicles	258	(1)
10.6.1 Fuel cells and renewable energy	258	(1)
10.6.2 Use of sustainable energy with conventional IC engine vehicles	258	(1)
10.7 The Role of Regulations and Law Makers	258	(2)
References	260	(1)
11 Case Studies	261	(18)
11.1 Introduction	261	(1)
11.2 Rechargeable Battery Vehicles	261	(8)
11.2.1 Electric bicycles	261	(2)
11.2.2 Electric mobility aids	263	(1)
11.2.3 Low speed vehicles	263	(3)
11.2.4 Battery powered cars and vans	266	(3)
11.3 Hybrid Vehicles	269	(3)
11.3.1 The Honda Insight	269	(2)
11.3.2 The Toyota Prius	271	(1)
11.4 Fuel Cell Powered Bus	272	(3)
11.5 Conclusion	275	(2)
References	277	(2)
Appendices: MATLAB® Examples	279	(14)
Appendix 1: Performance Simulation of the GM EV 1	279	(1)
Appendix 2: Importing and Creating Driving Cycles	280	(2)
Appendix 3: Simulating One Cycle	282	(2)
Appendix 4: Range Simulation of the GM EV1 Electric Car	284	(2)
Appendix 5: Electric Scooter Range Modelling	286	(2)
Appendix 6: Fuel Cell Range Simulation	288	(2)
Appendix 7: Motor Efficiency Plots	290	(3)
Index	293