Environmental Science and Engineering

by Henry, D. J.; Heinke, Gary W.

• ISBN13: 9780131206502
• ISBN10: 0131206508
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1996-03-11
• Publisher: Pearson

Summary

Offersan authoritative perspective on both theory and practice:the authors are world renowned scientists and engineers with academic and practical experience in environmental matters. Focused on current environmental problems, their causes, effects, and solutions, this book explores the basic nature of the natural systems. Using a technical (quantitative) approach it maintains a broad perspective that appeals to all, but at the same time is useful to those proceeding further in environmental or sanitary engineering.In addition to the traditional topics of water quality, wastewater treatment, and air pollution, it explains the root causes of environmental problems and clarifies the relationships between natural systems and technology. Provides discussions onsolid and hazardous wastes, environmental management,andethics topics seldom found in a single text. Discussesthe changing role of technology e.g., "preventive technology" as an alternative to traditional "end-of-pipe" solutions. Considers recent data on thecauses of environmental problems e.g., population and economic growth, energy growth, natural environmental hazards, and environmental disturbances. Expands coverage of such topics as water consumption and drinking water standards; water pollution; scientific background e.g., atmospheric sciences,Cryptosporidium.

Table of Contents

PREFACE	xvi	(2)
ABOUT THE AUTHORS AND CONTRIBUTORS	xviii
Part I Causes of Environmental Problems	1	(141)
1 THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS	1	(13)
Gary W. Heinke
1.1 What This Book Is About	1	(1)
1.2 Some Important Definitions	2	(1)
1.3 Interaction of Systems	2	(1)
1.4 Environmental Disturbances	3	(4)
1.5 Public Awareness and Action	7	(2)
1.6 The Changing Role of Technology	9	(2)
1.6.1 Sustainable Development	9	(1)
1.6.2 Preventive Technology	10	(1)
1.7 Quantification of Environmental Issues	11	(1)
Problems	11	(1)
References	12	(2)
2 POPULATION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH	14	(35)
Gary W. Heinke
2.1 Introduction	14	(1)
2.2 Population Growth	15	(15)
2.2.1 The Nature of Population Growth	15	(2)
2.2.2 Population Growth in More Developed and Less Developed Regions	17	(5)
2.2.3 Population Parameters	22	(3)
2.2.4 Population Projections and Methods	25	(4)
2.2.5 Momentum of World Population Growth	29	(1)
2.3 Industrialization	30	(6)
2.3.1 Measures of Economic Growth and Industrialization	31	(4)
2.3.2 Technology of Production	35	(1)
2.4 Urbanization	36	(4)
2.4.1 Definition of Urbanization	37	(1)
2.4.2 Growth of Cities	38	(2)
2.5 Environmental Impact	40	(4)
2.6 The Dilemma of Industrialization and Urbanization	44	(2)
Problems	46	(1)
References	47	(2)
3 ENERGY GROWTH	49	(36)
O. J. C. Runnalls
Donald Mackay
3.1 Sources of Primary Energy	50	(2)
3.2 Current Consumption of Energy	52	(8)
3.3 Future Consumption and Availability of Energy Sources	60	(4)
3.4 Environmental Impacts of Energy Development	64	(5)
3.5 Environmental Impact Matrices	69	(9)
3.5.1 Environmental Impacts of Oil	70	(2)
3.5.2 Environmental Impacts of Natural Gas	72	(1)
3.5.3 Environmental Impacts of Coal	73	(2)
3.5.4 Environmental Impacts of Hydroelectric Development	75	(1)
3.5.5 Environmental Impacts of Nuclear Power	76	(2)
3.6 Case Study: Canada's Energy Situation	78	(4)
Problems	82	(2)
References	84	(1)
4 NATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS	85	(26)
Ian Burton
4.1 Introduction	85	(1)
4.2 Classification and Measurement of Natural Hazards	86	(3)
4.3 What is a Natural Hazard?	89	(3)
4.4 Extreme Events and Environmental Change	92	(1)
4.5 Impacts and Trends	93	(5)
4.6 Adjustments and Their Classification	98	(6)
4.6.1 Preindustrial Approach	98	(1)
4.6.2 Industrial Approach	98	(3)
4.6.3 Postindustrial Approach	101	(2)
4.6.4 Classification	103	(1)
4.7 A Theoretical Perspective: Future Possible Responses	104	(3)
Problems	107	(1)
References	108	(3)
5 HUMAN ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCES	111	(31)
F. Kenneth Hare
Thomas C. Hutchinson
5.1 Overview	111	(2)
5.2 The Greenhouse Effect and Ozone Depletion: Global Issues	113	(9)
5.2.1 Carbon Dioxide and Other Greenhouse Gases	113	(2)
5.2.2 Effects of Greenhouse Gas Buildup	115	(4)
5.2.3 The Ozone Depletion Problem	119	(1)
5.2.4 Control Measures: The Climate Change Convention	120	(2)
5.3 Acid Rain: A Regional Issue	122	(15)
5.3.1 The Nature of the Problem	122	(1)
5.3.2 Sources and Distribution of Acid Rain	122	(1)
5.3.3 Effects of Acid Rain on Aquatic Systems	123	(6)
5.3.4 Effects of Acid Rain on Terrestrial Ecosystems	129	(4)
5.3.5 Effects of Acid Rain on Groundwater, Materials, and Buildings	133	(2)
5.3.6 Remedial and Control Measures	135	(2)
5.4 Lessons Learned	137	(1)
5.5 Epilogue	138	(1)
Problems	139	(1)
References	140	(2)
Part 2 Scientific Background	142	(195)
6 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY	142	(74)
Gary W. Heinke
J. Glynn Henry
6.1 Introduction	142	(1)
6.2 Particle Dispersion	142	(8)
6.2.1 Particle Size, Shape, and Distribution	143	(2)
6.2.2 Colloidal Dispersions	145	(1)
6.2.3 Methods of Expressing Particle Concentrations	146	(1)
6.2.4 Settling of a Particle In a Fluid	147	(3)
6.3 Solutions	150	(19)
6.3.1 Solutions and Solubility	150	(2)
6.3.2 Methods of Expressing the Composition of Solutions	152	(6)
6.3.3 Acid-Base Reactions	158	(11)
6.4 Gases, Gaseous Mixtures, and Gas Liquid Transfer	169	(10)
6.4.1 Gas Laws	169	(6)
6.4.2 Gas Liquid Transfer	175	(4)
6.5 Material Balances	179	(10)
6.5.1 Concept of Material Balance	179	(4)
6.5.2 Guidelines for Making Material Balances	183	(1)
6.5.3 Examples of Material Balances	184	(5)
6.6 Reaction Kinetics and Reactors	189	(19)
6.6.1 Reaction Kinetics	189	(6)
6.6.2 Types of Reactors	195	(8)
6.6.3 Determination of Reaction Rates	203	(2)
6.6.4 Principles of Reactor Design	205	(3)
Problems	208	(7)
References	215	(1)
7 ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES	216	(38)
F. Kenneth Hare
7.1 Introduction	216	(1)
7.2 Basic Atmospheric Properties	217	(4)
7.2.1 Composition and Physical State	217	(2)
7.2.2 Thermal and Electrical State	219	(2)
7.3 Energy Outputs and Inputs	221	(8)
7.3.1 Solar Radiation	221	(2)
7.3.2 Terrestrial Radiation	223	(1)
7.3.3 Surface Radiation Balance	224	(4)
7.3.4 Energy Use at the Surface	228	(1)
7.4 Wind, Stability, and Turbulence	229	(6)
7.4.1 Motion of the Lower Atmosphere	229	(3)
7.4.2 Turbulence and Stability	232	(3)
7.5 Water in the Atmosphere	235	(7)
7.5.1 Humidity and Precipitation	235	(3)
7.5.2 The Hydrologic Cycle	238	(4)
7.6 Climate	242	(8)
7.6.1 World Distribution	242	(3)
7.6.2 Climatic Variability	245	(1)
7.6.3 The Climatic System	246	(1)
7.6.4 Urban Climates	247	(3)
Problems	250	(2)
References	252	(2)
8 MICROBIOLOGY AND EPIDEMIOLOGY	254	(49)
Gary W. Heinke
8.1 Introduction	254	(1)
8.2 Fundamentals of Microbiology	255	(16)
8.2.1 Classification of Microorganisms	255	(1)
8.2.2 Bacteria	256	(4)
8.2.3 Growth and Death of Bacteria	260	(5)
8.2.4 Viruses, Algae, Fungi, and Protozoa	265	(6)
8.3 Applied Microbiology	271	(7)
8.3.1 Soil and Solid Waste Microbiology	271	(2)
8.3.2 Water and Wastewater Microbiology and Indicator Organisms	273	(2)
8.3.3 Atmospheric and Indoor Air Microbiology	275	(3)
8.4 Epidemiology and Disease	278	(14)
8.4.1 Sanitation and Health	278	(1)
8.4.2 Pathogens	279	(4)
8.4.3 Waterborne Diseases and Water Quality	283	(5)
8.4.4 Airborne Diseases	288	(2)
8.4.5 Insect- and Rodent-borne Diseases	290	(2)
8.5 Noninfectious Diseases	292	(7)
8.5.1 Inorganic Contaminants	293	(4)
8.5.2 Organic Contaminants	297	(1)
8.5.3 Safe Limits	298	(1)
Problems	299	(2)
References	301	(2)
9 ECOLOGY	303	(34)
Thomas C. Hutchinson
9.1 Introductory Concepts	303	(1)
9.2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems	304	(7)
9.2.1 Estimates of Primary Production	306	(2)
9.2.2 Comparison of Primary Productivity in Different World Ecosystems	308	(2)
9.2.3 Energy Flow in Ecosystems beyond Primary Producers	310	(1)
9.3 Food Chain and Trophic Levels	311	(2)
9.4 Nutrient Cycles	313	(7)
9.4.1 Carbon Cycle	313	(1)
9.4.2 Nitrogen Cycle	314	(2)
9.4.3 Phosphorus Cycle	316	(4)
9.5 Elements of Limnology	320	(6)
9.5.1 Quantity and Quality of Water	321	(1)
9.5.2 Biotic Communities	321	(1)
9.5.3 Light in Lakes	322	(2)
9.5.4 Temperature and Vertical Stratification of Lakes	324	(2)
9.6 Eutrophication	326	(8)
9.6.1 The Problem	326	(1)
9.6.2 Physical Chemical and Biological Changes	327	(1)
9.6.3 Control of Eutrophication	328	(1)
9.6.4 Case Study: The Great Lakes	329	(4)
9.6.5 A New Challenge: Coastal Estuaries	333	(1)
Problems	334	(1)
References	335	(2)
Part 3 Technology and Control	337	(393)
10 WATER RESOURCES	337	(46)
J. Glynn Henry
10.1 Introduction	337	(1)
10.2 Water Resources Management	338	(3)
10.2.1 Importance of Water	338	(1)
10.2.2 Need for Control	339	(1)
10.2.3 Objectives in Water Resources Management	340	(1)
10.3 Technological Considerations	341	(13)
10.3.1 Properties of Water	341	(1)
10.3.2 Annual Precipitation	342	(1)
10.3.3 Quantity of Water Available	343	(4)
10.3.4 Water Use	347	(2)
10.3.5 Options for Meeting Water Demands	349	(3)
10.3.6 Quantifying Ecological and Social Effects	352	(2)
10.4 Planning Requirements	354	(7)
10.4.1 Purpose of Planning	354	(1)
10.4.2 Stages in the Planning Process	355	(1)
10.4.3 Formulation of the Study	355	(2)
10.4.4 Evaluation of Alternatives and Their Effects	357	(4)
10.4.5 Adoption of a Plan	361	(1)
10.5 Legislative Controls	361	(2)
10.6 Political Influences	363	(5)
10.6.1 Pressure Groups	363	(2)
10.6.2 Management Policies	365	(3)
10.7 Future Challenges	368	(3)
10.8 Case Studies	371	(8)
10.8.1 The Peripheral Canal	371	(5)
10.8.2 The Occoquan Watershed	376	(3)
Problems	379	(2)
References	381	(2)
11 WATER SUPPLY	383	(38)
Gary W. Heinke
11.1 Introduction	383	(1)
11.2 Water Quantity Requirements	384	(5)
11.2.1 Water Demand	384	(2)
11.2.2 Fluctuations in Water Use	386	(3)
11.3 Water Quality Requirements	389	(3)
11.3.1 Water Quality Standards	389	(1)
11.3.2 Physical Characteristics	390	(2)
11.3.3 Chemical Characteristics	392	(1)
11.4 Sources of Water	392	(3)
11.4.1 Groundwater	392	(2)
11.4.2 Surface Water	394	(1)
11.4.3 Seawater	395	(1)
11.4.4 Reclaimed Wastewater	395	(1)
11.5 Water Treatment Processes	395	(14)
11.5.1 Water Treatment Plants	395	(2)
11.5.2 Removal of Particulate Matter	397	(8)
11.5.3 Disinfection	405	(2)
11.5.4 Removal of Dissolved Substances	407	(2)
11.6 Transmission, Distribution, and Storage of Water	409	(6)
11.6.1 Transmission	409	(1)
11.6.2 Distribution	410	(1)
11.6.3 Storage	411	(4)
11.7 Future Needs and Development	415	(1)
Problems	416	(4)
References	420	(1)
12 WATER POLLUTION	421	(71)
J. Glynn Henry
12.1 Introduction	421	(1)
12.2 Wastewater	422	(9)
12.2.1 Constituents	422	(3)
12.2.2 BOD Measurement	425	(2)
12.2.3 Municipal Wastewater	427	(1)
12.2.4 Industrial Wastewater	428	(1)
12.2.5 Stormwater	428	(3)
12.3 Pollution of Receiving Waters	431	(5)
12.3.1 Effects of Pollutants	431	(2)
12.3.2 Water Quality Requirements	433	(2)
13.3.3 Need for Pollution Control	435	(1)
12.4 Wastewater Collection	436	(4)
12.4.1 Early Systems	436	(1)
12.4.2 Present Systems	436	(2)
12.4.3 Pollution from Combined Sewer Overflows	438	(2)
12.5 Principles of Wastewater Treatment	440	(11)
12.5.1 Effluent Requirements	440	(1)
12.5.2 Treatment Processes	440	(10)
12.5.3 Selection of Treatment Method	450	(1)
12.6 Land-Based Treatment Methods	451	(5)
12.6.1 Land Application Systems	451	(1)
12.6.2 Impoundment Systems	452	(4)
12.7 Wastewater Treatment Plants	456	(25)
12.7.1 Suspended-Growth Systems	457	(4)
12.7.2 Suspended Growth Kinetics	461	(9)
12.7.3 Fixed Film Processes	470	(4)
12.7.4 Sludge Processing	474	(5)
12.7.5 Residuals Disposal	479	(2)
12.7.6 Odor Problems	481	(1)
12.8 On-Site Treatment Facilities	481	(3)
12.8.1 Waterless Systems	482	(1)
12.8.2 Septic Tanks	482	(1)
12.8.3 Package Plants	483	(1)
12.9 Government/Public Role in Pollution Control	484	(2)
12.9.1 Government Subsidies	484	(1)
12.9.2 Direct Regulation	485	(1)
12.9.3 Municipal Bylaws	485	(1)
12.9.4 Public Involvement	485	(1)
12.10 Trends in Controlling Water Pollution	486	(1)
Problems	487	(4)
References	491	(1)
13 AIR POLLUTION	492	(75)
William J. Moroz
13.1 Air Pollution in Perspective	492	(6)
13.1.1 Introduction	492	(1)
13.1.2 Air Pollution Episodes	493	(2)
13.1.3 The Los Angeles Smog	495	(2)
13.1.4 Global and Regional Pollutants	497	(1)
13.1.5 The Principal Atmospheric Pollutants	497	(1)
13.2 Effects of Air Pollution	498	(8)
13.2.1 Health Effects	498	(4)
13.2.2 Effects on Plants and Animals	502	(1)
13.2.3 Effects on Materials and Services	503	(1)
13.2.4 Ambient Air Quality Standards	503	(3)
13.3 Sources of Air Pollution	506	(15)
13.3.1 Identifying Air Pollutants	506	(2)
13.3.2 Natural Sources	508	(2)
13.3.3 Domestic Sources	510	(1)
13.3.4 Commercial Sources	511	(1)
13.3.5 Agricultural Sources	512	(1)
13.3.6 Industrial Sources	513	(4)
13.3.7 Transportation-related Sources	517	(4)
13.4 Control of Air Pollution	521	(27)
13.4.1 Natural Cleansing of the Atmosphere	521	(1)
13.4.2 Air Quality Control	522	(1)
13.4.3 Particle Emission Control	523	(13)
13.4.4 Gas Emission Control	536	(2)
13.4.5 Flow Diagrams for Typical Recovery Processes	538	(8)
13.4.6 Nitrogen Oxide Emission Control	546	(1)
13.4.7 Ambient Air Quality Control by Dilution	547	(1)
13.5 Predicting Air Pollutant Concentrations	548	(11)
13.5.1 Air Pollution Meteorology	548	(4)
13.5.2 Pollution Dispersion Models	552	(4)
13.5.3 Plume Rise Models	556	(2)
13.5.4 Other Pollutant Dispersion Models and the Accuracy of Predictions	558	(1)
13.6 Air Pollution Control Costs	559	(1)
13.6.1 Coal-Fired Power Plant	559	(1)
13.6.2 Automobile Emissions Control Costs	560	(1)
Problems	560	(5)
References	565	(2)
14 SOLID WASTES	567	(53)
J. Glynn Henry
14.1 Introduction	567	(1)
14.2 Characteristics of Solid Wastes	568	(9)
14.2.1 What is Solid Waste?	568	(1)
14.2.2 Changes in Municipal Solid Waste	569	(2)
14.2.3 Quantities	571	(1)
14.2.4 Characteristics	572	(5)
14.3 Considerations in Solid Waste Management	577	(4)
14.3.1 Protection of Public Health and the Environment	577	(1)
14.3.2 Source Reduction	578	(1)
14.3.3 Recycling	578	(2)
14.3.4 Recovery of Energy	580	(1)
14.4 Collection Systems	581	(5)
14.4.1 Ease and Frequency of Pickup	581	(1)
14.4.2 Collection Equipment	582	(1)
14.4.3 Transfer Stations	583	(1)
14.4.4 Rail Haul	584	(1)
14.4.5 Route Selection	585	(1)
14.5 Separation and Processing of MSW	586	(4)
14.5.1 At-Source Separation and Processing	586	(1)
14.5.2 Central Separation and Processing	587	(3)
14.6 Conversion of MSW	590	(6)
14.6.1 Incineration	590	(5)
14.6.2 Composting	595	(1)
14.6.3 Other Conversion Processes	596	(1)
14.7 Landfilling	596	(13)
14.7.1 Design Criteria for Sanitary Landfills	597	(1)
14.7.2 Problems with Landfilling	598	(2)
14.7.3 Leachate Generation Control and Treatment	600	(8)
14.7.4 Gas Production	608	(1)
14.8 Future Opportunities	609	(3)
14.8.1 Legislation	610	(1)
14.8.2 Collection	610	(1)
14.8.3 Incineration	610	(1)
14.8.4 Landfilling	611	(1)
Problems	612	(5)
References	617	(3)
15 HAZARDOUS WASTES	620	(65)
J. Glynn Henry
O. J. C. Runnalls
15.1 Introduction	620	(2)
15.2 Nuclear Wastes	622	(14)
15.2.1 Health and Environmental Effects	622	(6)
15.2.2 Nuclear Wastes from Uranium Mining and Processing	628	(1)
15.2.3 Nuclear Wastes from Power Reactors	629	(2)
15.2.4 Management of Nuclear Wastes	631	(5)
15.2.5 Decommissioning of Nuclear Power Reactors	636	(1)
15.2.6 Concluding Remarks	636	(1)
15.3 Biomedical Wastes	636	(2)
15.3.1 Types of Waste	636	(1)
15.3.2 Control of Biomedical Wastes	637	(1)
15.4 Chemical Wastes	638	(2)
15.4.1 Need for Control	638	(1)
15.4.2 Environmental Effects	638	(2)
15.5 Identifying a Hazardous Waste	640	(5)
15.5.1 Methods	640	(1)
15.5.2 United States Practice	641	(4)
15.6 Hazardous Waste Management	645	(6)
15.6.1 Quantities of Hazardous Wastes Generated	646	(3)
15.6.2 Components of a Hazardous Waste Management Plan	649	(1)
15.6.3 Hazardous Waste Minimization	650	(1)
15.7 Treatment and Disposal of Chemical Wastes	651	(14)
15.7.1 Treatment and Disposal by Industry	651	(2)
15.7.2 Off-Site Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal	653	(1)
15.7.3 Quantities to Be Landfilled	654	(2)
15.7.4 Practices in Western Europe and the United Kingdom	656	(6)
15.7.5 Practices in North America	662	(3)
15.8 The Secure Landfill	665	(5)
15.8.1 Function	665	(1)
15.8.2 Acceptable Wastes	665	(1)
15.8.3 Site Selection and Approval	666	(1)
15.8.4 Design and Construction	667	(1)
15.8.5 Problems	668	(2)
15.9 Treatment and Disposal of Leachate	670	(1)
15.9.1 Combined Treatment	670	(1)
15.9.2 Separate Treatment	670	(1)
15.10 Site Remediation	671	(6)
15.10.1 Remedial Techniques	673	(3)
15.10.2 Case Study: Remediation at the Seymour, Indiana, Superfund Site	676	(1)
15.11 Future Challenges	677	(2)
Problems	679	(3)
References	682	(3)
16 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT	685	(45)
R. Ted Munn
Gary W. Heinke
J. Glynn Henry
16.1 Introduction	685	(1)
16.2 Sustainable Development	686	(1)
16.3 Environmental Impact Assessment	687	(13)
16.3.1 Historical Perspective	687	(2)
16.3.2 Elements of the Environmental Impact Assessment Process	689	(3)
16.3.3 Design of an Environmental Impact Assessment	692	(3)
16.3.4 International EIAs	695	(1)
16.3.5 Conclusions	695	(1)
16.3.6 Case Study: Atmospheric Component of an EIA for a Coal-Fired Power Station	696	(4)
16.4 Pollution Control Strategies	700	(15)
16.4.1 Economic Aspects	700	(1)
16.4.2 Ambient and Effluent Standards	701	(1)
16.4.3 Regulations for Controlling Environmental Pollution	702	(7)
16.4.4 Case Study: Toxic Chemical Wastes--The Niagara River Problem	709	(6)
16.5 Environmental Ethics	715	(11)
16.5.1 Ethics in Society	715	(1)
16.5.2 Environmental Consequences	716	(1)
16.5.3 Responsibility for Environmental Degradation	717	(1)
16.5.4 Ethical Theories and Codes of Ethics	718	(1)
16.5.5 Ethical Problem Solving	719	(3)
16.5.6 Changing Attitudes	722	(2)
16.5.7 Conclusions	724	(2)
Problems	726	(2)
References	728	(2)
Appendix A SYMBOLS, DIMENSIONS, AND UNITS	730	(18)
Appendix B PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CONSTANTS	748	(7)
Appendix C ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS	755	(3)
Appendix D SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS	758	(3)
INDEX	761