Measurement And Assessment In Education

by Reynolds, Cecil R.; Livingston, Ronald B.; Willson, Victor

• ISBN13: 9780205376025
• ISBN10: 0205376029
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2009-01-01
• Publisher: Allyn & Bacon

Summary

This text employs a pragmatic approach to the study of educational tests and measurement so that teachers will understand essential psychometric concepts and be able to apply them in the classroom. The principles that guide the development of this text are: (1) What essential knowledge and skills do classroom teachers need to conduct student assessments in a professional manner? (2) What does the research on educational assessment tell us? This focus has resulted in a uniquely approachable and technically accurate presentation of the material. While providing a slightly more technical presentation of measurement and assessment than more basic texts, this text is both approachable and comprehensive. The text includes a gentle introduction to the basic mathematics of measurement, and expands traditional coverage to include a thorough discussion of performance and portfolio assessments, a complete presentation of assessment accommodations for students with disabilities, and a practical discussion of professional best practices in educational measurement.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
Introduction to Educational Assessment	1	(30)
The Language of Assessment	2	(7)
Tests, Measurement, and Assessment	3	(1)
Types of Tests	4	(4)
Types of Score Interpretations	8	(1)
Assumptions of Educational Assessment	9	(4)
Psychological and Educational Constructs Exist	9	(1)
Psychological and Educational Constructs Can Be Measured	10	(1)
Although We Can Measure Constructs, Our Measurement Is Not Perfect	10	(1)
There Are Different Ways to Measure Any Given Construct	10	(1)
All Assessment Procedures Have Strengths and Limitations	10	(1)
Multiple Sources of Information Should Be Part of the Assessment Process	11	(1)
Performance on Tests Can Be Generalized to Nontest Behaviors	11	(1)
Assessment Can Provide Information That Helps Educators Make Better Educational Decisions	11	(1)
Assessments Can Be Conducted in a Fair Manner	11	(1)
Testing and Assessment Can Benefit Our Educational Institutions and Society as a Whole	12	(1)
Participants in the Assessment Process	13	(2)
People Who Develop Tests	13	(1)
People Who Use Tests	14	(1)
People Who Take Tests	14	(1)
Other People Involved in the Assessment Process	15	(1)
Common Applications of Educational Assessments	15	(3)
Student Evaluations	15	(1)
Instructional Decisions	16	(1)
Selection, Placement, and Classification Decisions	16	(1)
Policy Decisions	17	(1)
Counseling and Guidance Decisions	18	(1)
What Teachers Need to Know about Assessment	18	(3)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Selecting Professionally Developed Assessment Procedures Appropriate for Making Instructional Decisions	19	(1)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Developing Assessment Procedures Appropriate for Making Instructional Decisions	19	(1)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Administering, Scoring, and Interpreting Professionally Developed and Teacher-Made Assessment Procedures	20	(1)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Using Assessment Results When Making Educational Decisions	20	(1)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Developing Valid Grading Procedures That Incorporate Assessment Information	20	(1)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Communicating Assessment Results	20	(1)
Teachers Should Be Proficient in Recognizing Unethical, Illegal, and Other Inappropriate Uses of Assessment Procedures or Information	21	(1)
Educational Assessment in the Twenty-First Century	21	(5)
Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT) and Other Technological Advances	22	(1)
``Authentic'' or Complex-Performance Assessments	22	(2)
Educational Accountability and High-Stakes Assessment	24	(1)
Trends in the Assessment of Students with Disabilities	24	(2)
Summary	26	(5)
The Basic Mathematics of Measurement	31	(27)
The Role of Mathematics in Assessment	31	(1)
Scales of Measurement	32	(4)
What Is Measurement?	32	(1)
Nominal Scales	33	(1)
Ordinal Scales	33	(1)
Interval Scales	34	(1)
Ratio Scales	34	(2)
The Description of Test Scores	36	(13)
Distributions	36	(4)
Measures of Central Tendency	40	(3)
Measures of Variability	43	(6)
Correlation Coefficients	49	(6)
Scatterplots	50	(2)
Correlation and Prediction	52	(1)
Types of Correlation Coefficients	52	(1)
Correlation versus Causality	52	(3)
Summary	55	(3)
The Meaning of Test Scores	58	(27)
Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Score Interpretations	59	(20)
Norm-Referenced Interpretations	60	(16)
Criterion-Referenced Interpretations	76	(3)
Norm-Referenced, Criterion-Referenced, or Both?	79	(2)
Qualitative Description of Scores	81	(1)
Summary	82	(3)
Reliability for Teachers	85	(32)
Errors of Measurement	86	(4)
Sources of Measurement Error	87	(3)
Methods of Estimating Reliability	90	(16)
Test--Retest Reliability	92	(1)
Alternate-Form Reliability	93	(1)
Internal-Consistency Reliability	93	(4)
Inter-rater Reliability	97	(2)
Reliability of Composite Scores	99	(1)
Selecting a Reliability Coefficient	99	(2)
Evaluating Reliability Coefficients	101	(2)
How to Improve Reliability	103	(2)
Special Problems in Estimating Reliability	105	(1)
The Standard Error of Measurement	106	(5)
Evaluating the Standard Error of Measurement	108	(3)
Reliability: Practical Strategies for Teachers	111	(3)
Summary	114	(3)
Validity for Teachers	117	(24)
Threats to Validity	118	(1)
Reliability and Validity	119	(1)
``Types of Validity'' versus ``Types of Validity Evidence''	120	(3)
Types of Validity Evidence	123	(14)
Evidence Based on Test Content	123	(3)
Evidence Based on Relations to Other Variables	126	(7)
Evidence Based on Internal Structure	133	(1)
Evidence Based on Response Processes	134	(1)
Evidence Based on Consequences of Testing	134	(1)
Integrating Evidence of Validity	135	(2)
Validity: Practical Strategies for Teachers	137	(1)
Summary	138	(3)
Item Analysis for Teachers	141	(22)
Item Difficulty Index (or Item Difficulty Level)	142	(2)
Special Assessment Situations and Item Difficulty	144	(1)
Item Discrimination	144	(7)
Discrimination Index	145	(2)
Item-Total Correlation Coefficients	147	(2)
Item Discrimination on Mastery Tests	149	(1)
Item Analysis of Speed Tests	150	(1)
Distracter Analysis	151	(2)
How Distracters Influence Item Difficulty and Discrimination	152	(1)
Item Analysis: Practical Strategies for Teachers	153	(2)
Using Item Analysis to Improve Items	155	(2)
Item Analysis of Performance Assessments	157	(1)
Qualitative Item Analysis	158	(1)
Using Item Analysis to Improve Classroom Instruction	159	(2)
Summary	161	(2)
The Initial Steps in Developing a Classroom Test	163	(25)
Characteristics of Educational Objectives	165	(1)
Scope	165	(1)
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives	166	(5)
Cognitive Domain	166	(3)
Affective Domain	169	(1)
Psychomotor Domain	170	(1)
Behavioral versus Nonbehavioral Educational Objectives	171	(1)
Writing Educational Objectives	172	(1)
Developing a Table of Specifications (or Test Blueprint)	173	(2)
Implementing the Table of Specifications and Developing an Assessment	175	(8)
Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Score Interpretations	176	(1)
Selecting Which Types of Items to Use	176	(4)
Putting the Assessment Together	180	(3)
Preparing Your Students and Administering the Assessment	183	(2)
Summary	185	(3)
The Development and Use of Selected-Response Items	188	(27)
Multiple-Choice Items	189	(15)
Guidelines for Developing Multiple-Choice Items	190	(9)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Multiple-Choice Items	199	(5)
True-False Items	204	(4)
Guidelines for Developing True-False Items	205	(1)
Strengths and Weaknesses of True-False Items	206	(2)
Matching Items	208	(5)
Guidelines for Developing Matching Items	209	(2)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Matching Items	211	(2)
Summary	213	(2)
The Development and Use of Constructed-Response Items	215	(23)
Oral Testing: The Oral Essay as a Precursor of Constructed-Response Items	216	(1)
Essay Items	217	(13)
Purposes of Essay Items	217	(2)
Essay Items at Different Levels of Complexity	219	(2)
Restricted-Response versus Extended-Response Essays	221	(1)
Guidelines for Developing Essay Items	222	(1)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Essay Items	223	(3)
Guidelines for Scoring Essay Items	226	(4)
Short-Answer Items	230	(5)
Guidelines for Developing Short-Answer Items	232	(2)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Short-Answer Items	234	(1)
A Final Note: Constructed-Response versus Selected-Response Items	235	(1)
Summary	236	(2)
Performance Assessments and Portfolios	238	(32)
What Are Performance Assessments?	239	(6)
Guidelines for Developing Effective Performance Assessments	245	(13)
Selecting Appropriate Performance Tasks	245	(4)
Developing Instructions	249	(1)
Developing Procedures for Evaluating Responses	249	(5)
Implementing Procedures to Minimize Errors in Rating	254	(4)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Performance Assessments	258	(4)
Portfolios	262	(4)
Guidelines for Developing Portfolio Assessments	262	(2)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Portfolio Assessments	264	(2)
Summary	266	(4)
Assigning Grades on the Basis of Classroom Assessments	270	(21)
Feedback and Evaluation	271	(4)
Formal and Informal Evaluation	274	(1)
The Use of Formative Evaluation in Summative Evaluation	274	(1)
Reporting Student Progress: Which Symbols to Use?	275	(2)
The Basis for Assigning Grades	277	(1)
Frame of Reference	278	(5)
Norm-Referenced Grading (Relative Grading)	278	(2)
Criterion-Referenced Grading (Absolute Grading)	280	(1)
Achievement in Relation to Improvement or Effort	281	(1)
Achievement Relative to Ability	282	(1)
Recommendation	282	(1)
Combining Grades into a Composite	283	(5)
Informing Students of Grading System	288	(1)
Parent Conferences	288	(1)
Summary	289	(2)
Standardized Achievement Tests in the Era of High-Stakes Assessment	291	(29)
Group-Administered Achievement Tests	294	(21)
Commercially Developed Group Achievement Tests	295	(9)
State-Developed Achievement Tests	304	(2)
Best Practices in Using Standardized Achievement Tests in Schools	306	(9)
Individual Achievement Tests	315	(2)
Selecting an Achievement Battery	317	(1)
Summary	318	(2)
The Use of Aptitude Tests in the Schools	320	(27)
A Brief History of Intelligence Tests	323	(3)
The Use of Aptitude and Intelligence Tests in Schools	326	(3)
Aptitude-Achievement Discrepancies	327	(2)
Major Aptitude/Intelligence Tests	329	(14)
Group Aptitude/Intelligence Tests	329	(5)
Individual Aptitude/Intelligence Tests	334	(8)
Selecting Aptitude/Intelligence Tests	342	(1)
College Admission Tests	343	(1)
Summary	344	(3)
Assessment of Behavior and Personality	347	(24)
Assessing Behavior and Personality	349	(3)
Response Sets	349	(1)
Assessment of Behavior and Personality in the Schools	350	(2)
Behavior Rating Scales	352	(8)
Behavior Assessment System for Children---Teacher Rating Scale and Parent Rating Scale (TRS and PRS)	353	(4)
Conners Rating Scales---Revised (CRS-R)	357	(1)
Child Behavior Checklist and Teacher Report Form (CBCL and TRF)	358	(2)
Self-Report Measures	360	(4)
Behavior Assessment System for Children---Self-Report of Personality (SRP)	360	(4)
Youth Self-Report (YSR)	364	(1)
Projective Techniques	364	(5)
Projective Drawings	366	(1)
Sentence Completion Tests	367	(1)
Apperception Tests	367	(1)
Inkblot Techniques	367	(2)
Summary	369	(2)
Assessment Accommodations for Students with Disabilities	371	(24)
Major Legislation That Impacts the Assessment of Students with Disabilities	373	(1)
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)	373	(5)
IDEA Categories of Disabilities	375	(3)
Section 504	378	(1)
The Rationale for Assessment Accommodations	379	(1)
When Are Accommodations Not Appropriate or Necessary?	380	(1)
Strategies for Accommodations	380	(5)
Modifications of Presentation Format	381	(1)
Modifications of Response Format	381	(2)
Modifications of Timing	383	(1)
Modification of Setting	383	(1)
Adaptive Devices and Supports	383	(1)
Using Only a Portion of a Test	384	(1)
Using Alternate Assessments	385	(1)
Determining What Accommodations to Provide	385	(2)
Reporting Results of Modified Assessments	387	(3)
Summary	390	(5)
The Problem of Bias in Educational Assessment	395	(27)
What Do We Mean by Bias?	398	(1)
Past and Present Concerns: A Brief Look	399	(1)
The Controversy over Bias in Testing: Its Origin, What It Is, and What It Is Not	399	(6)
Cultural Bias and the Nature of Psychological Testing	405	(1)
Objections to the Use of Educational and Psychological Tests with Minority Students	406	(2)
Inappropriate Content	406	(1)
Inappropriate Standardization Samples	407	(1)
Examiner and Language Bias	407	(1)
Inequitable Social Consequences	407	(1)
Measurement of Different Constructs	407	(1)
Differential Predictive Validity	407	(1)
Qualitatively Distinct Aptitude and Personality	407	(1)
The Problem of Definition in Test Bias Research: Differential Validity	408	(1)
Cultural Loading, Cultural Bias, and Culture-Free Tests	408	(1)
Inappropriate Indicators of Bias: Mean Differences and Equivalent Distributions	409	(1)
Bias in Test Content	410	(3)
Bias in Other Internal Features of Tests	413	(2)
Bias in Prediction and in Relation to Variables External to the Test	415	(5)
Summary	420	(2)
Best Practices in Educational Assessment	422	(19)
Guidelines for Developing Assessments	424	(1)
Guidelines for Selecting Published Assessments	425	(4)
Guidelines for Administering Assessments	429	(3)
Guidelines for Scoring Assessments	432	(2)
Guidelines for Interpreting, Using, and Communicating Assessment Results	434	(1)
Responsibilities of Test Takers	435	(2)
Summary	437	(4)
Appendix A: Summary Statements of The Student Evaluation Standards (JCSEE, 2003)	441	(3)
Appendix B: Code of Professional Responsibilities in Educational Measurement (NCME, 1995)	444	(8)
Appendix C: Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education (JCTP, 1988)	452	(4)
Appendix D: Rights and Responsibilities of Test Takers: Guidelines and Expectations (JCTP, 1998)	456	(9)
Appendix E: Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students (AFT, NCME, and NEA, 1990)	465	(6)
Appendix F: Proportions of Area under the Normal Curve	471	(4)
Appendix G: Answers to Practice Problems	475	(2)
References	477	(6)
Index	483