Nanoscale Calibration Standards and Methods Dimensional and Related Measurements in the Micro and Nanometer Range

by Wilkening, Gü; nter; Koenders, Ludger

• ISBN13: 9783527405022
• ISBN10: 352740502X
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-07-01
• Publisher: Wiley-VCH

Summary

The quantitative determination of the properties of micro- and nanostructures is essential in research and development. It is also a prerequisite in process control and quality assurance in industry. The knowledge of the geometrical dimensions of structures in most cases is the base, to which other physical and chemical properties are linked. Quantitative measurements require reliable and stable instruments, suitable measurement procedures as well as appropriate calibration artefacts and methods. The seminar "NanoScale 2004" (6th Seminar on Quantitative Microscopy and 2nd Seminar on Nanoscale Calibration Standards and Methods) at the National Metrology Institute (Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt PTB), Braunschweig, Germany, continues the series of seminars on Quantitative Microscopy. The series stimulates the exchange of information between manufacturers of relevant hard- and software and the users in science and industry. Topics addressed in these proceedings are a) the application of quantitative measurements and measurement problems in: microelectronics, microsystems technology, nano/quantum/molecular electronics, chemistry, biology, medicine, environmental technology, materials science, surface processing b) calibration & correction methods: calibration methods, calibration standards, calibration procedures, traceable measurements, standardization, uncertainty of measurements c) instrumentation and methods: novel/improved instruments and methods, reproducible probe/sample positioning, position-measuring systems, novel/improved probe/detector systems, linearization methods, image processing

Author Biography

Günter Wilkening received his Ph.D. in Solid State Physics from the Technical University of Braunschweig, Germany, in 1977. In 1978, he joined the National Metrology Institute (Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt PTB), where he conducts research in the fields of force measurement and dimensional measurements in the micro- and nanometre range. Since 1988 he has been involved in Scanning Probe Microscopy and its use for quantitative measurements. In 1994, Professor Wilkening became head of the Nano- and Micrometrology Department. He is an active member of a number of national and international committees.

Ludger Koenders is head of the Film Thickness and Nanostructures Research Group at the National Metrology Institute (Technische Bundesanstalt PTB) in Braunschweig, Germany. He received his Diploma and his Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Duisburg. For his Ph.D. thesis he investigated the adsorption of hydrogen and oxygen on III-V semiconductor surfaces using surface analytical techniques (AES, EELS, UPS, XPS) and resonant Raman spectroscopy. He joined the National Metrology Institute in 1989 and has worked on investigations of tip-sample effects in STM, on the development metrological SPM and of transfer standards for SPM. He has co-ordinated several international comparisons in the field of step height and surface roughness measurements.

Table of Contents

Part I Instrumentation - Overview
1 Metrological Scanning Probe Microscopes - Instruments for Dimensional Nanometrology	3	(19)
Hans-Ulrich Danzebrink, Frank Pohlenz, Gaoliang Dai, and Claudio Dal Savio
1.1 Introduction	3	(1)
1.2 High-Resolution Probing Systems	4	(8)
1.2.1 Sensor Objective with Beam Deflection Detection	5	(2)
1.2.2 Sensor Objective with Piezolever Module	7	(1)
1.2.3 Sensor Objective with Tuning Fork Module	8	(1)
1.2.4 Sensor Head for Combined Scanning Probe and Interference Microscopy	9	(3)
1.3 Metrology Systems Based on Scanning Probe Microscopes	12	(6)
1.3.1 Scanning Force Microscopes of Type Veritekt	13	(2)
1.3.2 Metrological Large Range Scanning Force Microscope	15	(3)
1.4 Summary	18	(1)
Acknowledgments	19	(1)
References	19	(3)
2 Nanometrology at the IMGC	22	(16)
M. Bisi, E. Massa, A. Pasquini, G.B. Picotto, and M. Pisani
2.1 Introduction	22	(1)
2.2 Surface Metrology	23	(5)
2.2.1 Scanning Probe Microscopy	23	(2)
2.2.2 Optical Diffractometry	25	(2)
2.2.3 Stylus Profilometry	27	(1)
2.3 Atomic Scale Metrology	28	(3)
2.3.1 Lattice Parameter of Silicon	29	(1)
2.3.2 Combined Optical and X-Ray Interferometry (COXI)	30	(1)
2.4 Phase-Contrast Topograpy	31	(3)
2.4.1 Detection of Small Lattice Strain	31	(1)
2.4.2 Phase-Contrast Imaging	32	(2)
2.5 Nanobalance	34	(1)
2.6 Conclusions	35	(1)
References	36	(2)
3 Metrological Applications of X-ray Interferometry	38	(9)
Andrew Yacoot
3.1 Introduction	38	(2)
3.2 Measurement of Non-linearity in Optical Interferometers	40	(1)
3.3 Combined Optical and X-ray Interferometry	41	(1)
3.4 Measurement of Small Angles	42	(1)
3.5 X-ray Interferometry and Scanning Probe Microscopy	43	(1)
3.6 Conclusions	43	(1)
References	44	(3)
Part II Instrumentation - Long-range Scanning Probe Microscope
4 Advances in Traceable Nanometrology with the Nanopositioning and Nanomeasuring Machine	47	(13)
Eberhard Manske, Rostislav Mastylo, Tino Hausotte, Norbert Hofmann, and Gerd Jäger
4.1 Introduction	47	(1)
4.2 Design and Operation	48	(4)
4.3 Uncertainty Budget	52	(1)
4.4 Focus Sensor	53	(2)
4.5 Measuring Opportunities and Performance with Focus Sensor	55	(3)
4.6 Focus Probe with SFM Cantilever	58	(1)
4.7 Conclusion	58	(1)
Acknowledgements	59	(1)
References	59	(1)
5 Coordinate Measurements in Microsystems by Using AFM-Probing: Problems and Solutions	60	(13)
Dorothee Hüser, Ralph Petersen, and Hendrik Rothe
5.1 Introduction	60	(1)
5.2 Realizing CMMs for Microsystems	61	(3)
5.3 Problems and Solutions	64	(7)
5.3.1 Dynamics of Positioning System	64	(3)
5.3.2 CMM: One-Millimeter Scan	67	(1)
5.3.3 Measuring Strategies	68	(3)
5.4 Conclusion and Outlook	71	(1)
References	72	(1)
6 Metrological Large Range Scanning Force Microscope Applicable for Traceable Calibration of Surface Textures	73	(22)
Gaoliang Dai, Frank Pohlenz, Hans-Ulrich Danzebrink, Min Xu, Klaus Hasche, Günter Wilkening
6.1 Introduction	74	(1)
6.2 Instrumentation	75	(5)
6.2.1 Principle	75	(1)
6.2.2 Metrological Properties	76	(2)
6.2.3 Traceability	78	(1)
6.2.4 Specially Designed Features	79	(1)
6.3 Measurement Result of a 2D-Grating Standard	80	(5)
6.3.1 Measurement Strategy	80	(2)
6.3.2 Data Evaluation	82	(1)
6.3.3 Measurement Result of the Mean Pitch Value	83	(1)
6.3.4 Measurement of the Local Pitch Variation	83	(2)
6.4 A Selected Measurement Result of a Microroughness Standard	85	(6)
6.4.1 Measurement Result of a Glass Flatness Standard	86	(1)
6.4.2 Measurement of a PTB Microroughness Standard	87	(1)
6.4.3 Comparison of the Roughness Measurement Results Derived from SFM and Stylus Instruments Using Gaussian Filter	88	(1)
6.4.4 Comparison Using Morphological Filters	89	(1)
6.4.5 Evaluation Results Using PTB Reference Software	90	(1)
6.5 Outlook and Conclusion	91	(1)
References	92	(3)
Part III Instrumentation - Development of SPM and Sensors
7 Traceable Probing with an AFM	95	(14)
K. Dirscherl and K.R. Koops
7.1 Introduction	95	(1)
7.2 Setup	96	(4)
7.3 Correction for Piezo Nonlinearities	100	(3)
7.3.1 Hysteresis	100	(2)
7.3.2 Drift	102	(1)
7.4 Real-Time Control Through SSE2 Assembly	103	(1)
7.4 Implementation of the Measurement Controller	104	(1)
7.6 Image Analysis	105	(2)
7.7 Conclusions	107	(1)
Acknowledgments	108	(1)
References	108	(1)
8 Scanning Probe Microscope Setup with Interferometric Drift Compensation	109	(10)
Andrzej Sikora, Dmitri V. Sokolov, and Hans U. Danzebrink
8.1 Motivation	109	(2)
8.2 Existing Setup - Without Drift Compensation	111	(1)
8.3 Measurement Method and Setup for Drift Compensation	112	(3)
8.4 Experiment and Results	115	(3)
8.5 Summary	118	(1)
References	118	(1)
9 DSP-Based Metrological Scanning Force Microscope with Direct Interferometric Position Measurement and Improved Measurement Speed	119	(12)
Gaoliang Dai, Frank Pohlenz, Hans-Ulrich Danzebrink, Klaus Hasche, and Günter Wilkening
9.1 Introduction	119	(1)
9.2 Instrument	120	(4)
9.2.1 Principle	120	(1)
9.2.2 DSP-Based Signal Processing System	121	(2)
9.2.3 Calibration of the Tip Signal for Traceably Measuring the Bending of the Cantilever	123	(1)
9.3 Correction of Nonlinearity of the Optical Interferometers in the M-SFM	124	(4)
9.3.1 Review of Nonlinearity Correction Methods	124	(1)
9.3.2 Adapted Heydemann Correction in a Fast Servo Control Loop	125	(1)
9.3.3 Performance of the Interferometers in the M-SFM Veritekt C	126	(2)
9.4 Improving the Measurement Speed	128	(1)
9.5 A Measurement Example of Step-Height Standard	129	(1)
References	130	(1)
10 Combined Confocal and Scanning Probe Sensor for Nano-Coordinate Metrology	131	(1)
Dmitri V. Sokolov, Dmitri V. Kazantsev, James W.G. Tyrrell, Tomasz Hasek, and Hans U. Danzebrink
10.1 Introduction	132	(1)
10.2 Instrumentation and Experimental Details	133	(3)
10.3 Results and Discussion	136	(5)
10.3.1 Imaging in the Confocal and SPM Mode	136	(2)
10.3.2 One-Dimensional Optical and SPM Measurements	138	(3)
10.4 Summary and Conclusions	141	(1)
Acknowledgments	142	(1)
References	142	(2)
11 Combined Shear Force-Tunneling Microscope with Interferometric Tip Oscillation Detection for Local Surface Investigation and Oxidation	144	(1)
Andrzej Sikora, Teodor Gotszalk, and Roman Szeloch
11.1 Introduction	144	(1)
11.2 Instrumentation	145	(7)
11.3 Local Surface Electrical Properties Investigation	152	(1)
11.4 Local Surface Oxidation	152	(2)
11.5 Summary	154	(1)
Acknowledgements	155	(1)
References	155	(2)
12 Low Noise Piezoresistive Micro Force Sensor	157	(1)
L. Doering, E. Peiner, V. Nesterov, and U. Brand
12.1 Introduction	157	(1)
12.2 Manufacturing of the Sensor	158	(2)
12.2.1 Computer Aided Design	158	(1)
12.2.2 Manufacturing of the Sensor	158	(2)
12.3 Sensor Properties	160	(7)
12.3.1 Doping Profile	160	(3)
12.3.2 Spectroscopic Noise Analysis and Determination of the Hooge Constant	163	(2)
12.3.3 Force Calibration and Electrical Calibration	165	(2)
12.4 Application: Force Calibration of a Stylus Instrument	167	(2)
12.5 Conclusions	169	(1)
References	170	(3)
Part IV Calibration - Overview
13 Towards a Guideline for SPM Calibration	173	(72)
T. Dziornba, L. Koenders, and G. Wilkening
13.1 Introduction	173	(3)
13.2 General	176	(2)
13.2.1 Schematic Description of SPMs	176	(1)
13.2.2 Metrological Classification of SPMs	177	(1)
13.2.3 Calibration Intervals	178	(1)
13.3 Verification of Properties of Instrument, Tip and Environment	178	(5)
13.3.1 Ambient Conditions	179	(1)
13.3.2 Flatness Measurements and Signal Noise	179	(2)
13.3.3 Repeatability and Noise	181	(1)
13.3.4 Tip Shape	182	(1)
13.4 Calibration of the Scanner Axes	183	(7)
13.4.1 Lateral Calibration	183	(3)
13.4.2 Calibration of the Vertical Axis	186	(1)
Using Laser Interferometers	187	(1)
Using Transfer Standards	188	(1)
Evaluation of Step Height	188	(2)
13.5 Uncertainty of Measurements	190	(1)
Acknowledgments	191	(1)
References	191	(2)
14 True Three-Dimensional Calibration of Closed Loop Scanning Probe Microscopes	193	(1)
J. Garnaes, A. Kahle, L. Nielsen, and F. Borsetto
14.1 Introduction	193	(1)
14.2 Model of the Measurement System	194	(1)
14.3 The Correction Matrix	195	(1)
14.4 Theory for Estimating the Vertical Skew	196	(4)
14.5 Experimental Results and Discussion	200	(2)
14.6 Conclusion	202	(1)
Acknowledgements	202	(1)
Appendix	203	(1)
References	204	(1)
15 Height and Pitch at Nanoscale - How Traceable is Nanometrology?	205	(1)
L. Koenders and F. Meli
15.1 Introduction	205	(1)
15.2 Comparison on One-Dimensional Pitch Standards (NANO 4)	206	(6)
15.2.1 Standards and Measurand	206	(1)
15.2.2 Participants and Measurement Methods	207	(1)
15.2.3 Results	208	(2)
15.2.4 Uncertainty	210	(1)
15.2.5 Discussion	211	(1)
15.3 Comparison on Step Height (NANO4)	212	(6)
15.3.1 Standards	212	(1)
15.3.2 Measurement Methods	213	(1)
15.3.3 Results	214	(2)
15.3.4 Uncertainties	216	(1)
15.3.5 Discussion	217	(1)
15.4 Conclusions	218	(1)
Acknowledgment	218	(1)
References	219	(1)
16 The Behavior of Piezoelectric Actuators and the Effect on Step-Height Measurement with Scanning Force Microscopes	220	(1)
A. Grant, L. McDonnell, and E.M. Gil Romero
16.1 Introduction	220	(2)
16.2 Experimental	222	(2)
16.2.1 Scanning Force Microscopes	222	(1)
16.2.2 Z Calibration with Step-Height Standards	223	(1)
16.2.3 Z Calibration with Fiber-Optic Displacement Sensor	223	(1)
16.3 Results	224	(4)
16.3.1 Effect of Voltage Sweep	224	(1)
16.3.2 Effect of Z Actuator Offset	225	(2)
16.3.3 Implications of Actuator Offset for Sample Tilt	227	(1)
16.3.4 Implications of Actuator Offset for Scanner Curvature	227	(1)
16.4 Conclusions	228	(1)
Acknowledgments	228	(1)
References	228	(2)
17 An Approach to the Development of Tolerance Systems for Micro- and Nanotechnology	230	(1)
J. Schöbel and E. Westkämper
17.1 Introduction	230	(1)
17.2 Tolerancing and Standards	231	(4)
17.2.1 Measurement Systems Analysis	232	(1)
17.2.2 Step-Height Measurements	232	(2)
17.2.3 Microroughness	234	(1)
17.3 Machining Experiments	235	(5)
17.3.1 Micromilling	235	(2)
17.3.2 Sputtering	237	(3)
17.4 Conclusions	240	(1)
References	241	(4)
Part V Calibration - Standards for Nanometrology
18 Standards for the Calibration of Instruments for Dimensional Nanometrology	245	(52)
L. Koenders, T. Dziomba, P. Thomsen-Schmidt, and G. Wilkening
18.1 Introduction	245	(1)
18.2 Standards for Scanning Probe Microscopy	246	(8)
18.2.1 Flatness Standard	246	(2)
18.2.2 Tip Characterizers	248	(2)
18.2.3 Lateral Standards	250	(2)
18.2.4 Step-Height Standards	252	(2)
18.2.5 Nanoroughness Standards	254	(1)
18.3 Film Thickness Standards	254	(2)
18.4 Outlook	256	(1)
Acknowledgments	256	(1)
References	257	(2)
19 "Atomic Flat" Silicon Surface for the Calibration of Stylus Instruments	259	(1)
S. Groger and M. Dietzsch
19.1 Calibration of Stylus Instruments	259	(4)
19.2 "Atomic Flat" Silicon as Calibration Standard	263	(1)
19.3 Selection of the Measurement Instrument for the Assessment of Flatness	264	(1)
19.4 Calibration of the Stylus Instrument ME 10	265	(2)
19.5 Characteristics of the Measurement Instrument After Modification	267	(1)
19.6 Conclusions and Outlook	268	(1)
References	268	(1)
20 Investigations of Nanoroughness Standards by Scanning Force Microscopes and Interference Microscope	269	(1)
R. Krüger-Sehm, T. Dziomba, and G. Dai
20.1 Introduction	269	(1)
20.2 Standardization Aspects	270	(1)
20.3 Manufacturing of Calibration Specimens	271	(3)
20.3.1 Conditions for Smaller Roughness	271	(1)
20.3.2 Manufacturing Process	272	(1)
20.3.3 Profile Repetition	273	(1)
20.4 Measurements	274	(5)
20.4.1 Identification of the Fields of Interest	274	(1)
20.4.2 Correlation of Fields	274	(1)
20.4.3 Measurements with Interference Microscope	275	(1)
20.4.4 Scanning Force Microscope Measurements	276	(2)
20.4.5 Long Range SFM Measurements	278	(1)
20.4.6 Relation to Proven Roughness Standards	279	(1)
20.5 Conclusions and Outlook	279	(2)
Acknowledgments	281	(1)
References	281	(1)
21 Testing the Lateral Resolution in the Nanometre Range with a New Type of Certified Reference Material	282	(1)
M. Senoner, Th. Wirth, W. Unger, W. Österle, I. Kaiander, R.L. Sellin, and D. Bimberg
21.1 Introduction	282	(1)
21.2 Description of the Reference Material	283	(1)
21.3 Modeling of Lateral Resolution	284	(10)
21.3.1 Analysis of a Narrow Strip	288	(1)
21.3.2 Analysis of a Straight Edge	289	(2)
21.3.3 Analysis of Gratings	291	(3)
21.4 Conclusions	294	(1)
Acknowledgments	294	(1)
References	294	(3)
Part VI Calibration - Tip shape
22 Reconstruction and Geometric Assessment of AFM Tips	297	(26)
Torsten Machleidt, Ralf Kästner, and Karl-Heinz Franke
22.1 Introduction	298	(1)
22.2 Reconstruction of the Tactile Tip	299	(10)
22.2.1 Imaging the Tip Using Scanning Electron Microscopy	299	(1)
22.2.2 Reconstruction by Known Sample Structure	300	(1)
22.2.3 Blind Tip Estimation	301	(1)
22.2.4 Motivation	301	(1)
22.2.5 Tip Assessment	302	(1)
22.2.5.1 Two-Dimensional Characterization	302	(1)
22.2.5.2 Geometrical Interpretation	303	(1)
22.2.5.3 Tip Angle	304	(1)
22.2.5.4 Tip Radius	305	(1)
22.2.5.5 Tip Curvation	305	(1)
22.2.5.6 Review	306	(1)
22.2.6 Three-Dimensional Characterization	306	(1)
22.2.6.1 Geometrical Interpretation	306	(1)
22.2.6.2 Simulated Annealing Algorithm	307	(1)
22.2.6.3 Convergence	308	(1)
22.2.7 Experimental Results	309	(1)
22.3 Summary and Outlook	309	(1)
References	310	(1)
23 Comparison of Different Methods of SFM Tip Shape Determination for Various Characterisation Structures and Types of Tip	311	(1)
S. Czerkas, T. Dziomba, and H. Bosse
23.1 Introduction	311	(1)
23.2 Instrumentation	312	(1)
23.3 Results and Discussion	313	(7)
23.3.1 Needs of CD Metrology	313	(1)
23.3.2 Tip Shape Determination	314	(4)
23.3.3 Conclusions	318	(2)
23.4 Summary	320	(1)
References	320	(3)
Part VII Calibration - Optical Methods
24 Double Tilt Imaging Method for Measuring Aperture Correction Factor	323	(38)
Yen-Liang Chen, Chao Jung Chen, and Gwo-Sheng Peng
24.1 Introduction	323	(1)
24.2 Traceability of Step Height	324	(1)
24.3 Working Principle of DIT method	325	(1)
24.4 Experimental Setup	326	(2)
24.5 Relative Standard Uncertainty of Numerical Aperture Correction Factor	328	(1)
24.6 Uncertainty Analysis of the Numerical Aperture Correction Factor	329	(1)
24.7 Conclusion	329	(1)
References	330	(1)
25 How Statistical Noise Limits the Accuracy of Optical Interferometry for Nanometrology	331	(1)
Victor Nascov
25.1 Introduction	331	(1)
25.2 Optical Interferometry Overview	332	(5)
25.2.1 Two Waves Interferometry	332	(5)
25.2.2 Multiple Waves Interferometry	337	(1)
25.3 Statistical Errors on Processing Elementary Fringe Patterns	337	(3)
25.4 Wavelengths and Displacements Measurement	340	(1)
25.5 Absolute Distance Measurement	341	(2)
25.6 Conclusions	343	(1)
References	344	(1)
26 Uncertainty Analysis of the PTB Measuring Equipment for the Investigation of Laser Interferometers	345	(1)
G. Sparrer and A. Abou-Zeid
26.1 Introduction	345	(1)
26.2 The Calibration Facility	346	(2)
26.3 Measurement Procedure	348	(1)
26.4 The Uncertainty of the Complete Calibration Facility	349	(7)
26.4.1 The Measurement Uncertainty of the Comparator	349	(3)
26.4.2 The Measurement Uncertainty of the Standard Laser Interferometer Taking Into Account the Refractive Index of Air and the Thermal Expansion	352	(3)
26.4.3 The Expanded Measurement Uncertainty of the Entire Calibration Facility	355	(1)
Signs and Symbols of the Model Equations and the Uncertainty Budgets:	356	(1)
References	357	(4)
Part VIII Application - Lateral Structures
27 Lateral and Vertical Diameter Measurements on Polymer Particles with a Metrology AFM	361	(52)
F. Meli
27.1 Introduction	361	(2)
27.2 Experimental Setup	363	(2)
27.3 Measurement Results and Discussion	365	(9)
27.3.1 Height Measurements on Gold Colloids	365	(3)
27.3.2 Possible Systematic Deviations with Height Measurements on Gold Colloids	368	(2)
27.3.3 Lateral Measurements on Polymer Spheres	370	(4)
27.4 Conclusion	374	(1)
References	374	(1)
28 Pitch and CD Measurements at Anisotropically Etched Si Structures in an SEM	375	(1)
C.G. Frase, S. Czerkas, H. Bosse, Yu. A. Novikov, and A.V. Rakov
28.1 Introduction	376	(1)
28.2 GWPS Specimen	376	(1)
28.3 SEM Instrumentation	377	(1)
28.4 SEM image formation and Modeling	377	(4)
28.5 SEM Measurement Method	381	(1)
28.6 Measurement Results	382	(2)
28.7 Conclusion	384	(1)
References	384	(1)
29 Analysis and Comparison of CD-SEM Edge Operators: A Contribution to Feature Width Metrology	385	(1)
C.G. Frase, W. Häßler-Grohne, E. Buhr, K. Hahm, and H. Bosse
29.1 Introduction	385	(2)
29.2 Exponential Fit Operator	387	(7)
29.2.1 Secondary Electron Image Formation at Structural Edges	387	(3)
29.2.2 Definition of Top CD Operator	390	(1)
29.2.3 SEM Model Input Parameter Variations	390	(2)
29.2.4 Experimental Parameter Variations	392	(1)
29.2.5 Measurement Results	393	(1)
29.3 Modified Exponential Fit Operator for High Sidewall Angles	394	(2)
29.4 Gauss Fit Operator	396	(2)
29.5 Signal Decay Operator	398	(4)
29.6 Conclusion	402	(1)
References	403	(1)
30 Measurement of High-Resolution Interferential Encoders Using the PTB Nanometer Comparator	404	(1)
J. Flitigge, R. Koening, and H. Bosse
30.1 Principle	404	(1)
30.2 Laser Interferometer	405	(1)
30.3 Incremental Linear Encoders	406	(2)
30.4 Measurement Results	408	(1)
References	409	(4)
Part IX Application - Surface
31 Experimental Characterization of Micromilled Surfaces by Large-Range AFM	413	(52)
P. Bariani, G. Bissacco, H.N. Hansen, and L. De Chiffre
31.1 Introduction	413	(1)
31.2 Micromilling of Hardened Tool Steel	414	(1)
31.3 Surface Topography Measurement	415	(1)
31.4 Large-Range Atomic Force Microscopy	416	(1)
31.5 Techniques Used for Comparison	416	(1)
31.6 Evaluation of Sampling Conditions for the Different Techniques	417	(1)
31.7 Results	418	(4)
31.8 Discussion and Conclusions	422	(1)
References	423	(1)
32 Investigation of the Surface Roughness Measurement of Mass Standards	424	(1)
C. Zerrouki, L.R Pendrill J.M. Bennett, Y. Haidar, F. de Fornel, and P. Pinot
32.1 Introduction	424	(1)
32.2 Requirements for Surface Roughness of Mass Standards	425	(1)
32.3 Surface Roughness Measurement Methods Applied to Mass Standards	426	(3)
32.3.1 Mechanical Profiler (NAWC-US)	427	(1)
32.3.2 Near Field Microscope (LPUB, FR)	427	(1)
32.3.3 Angle-Resolved Light Scattering (BNM-INM, FR)	428	(1)
32.3.4 Angle-Resolved Light Scattering (Lasercheck, US)	428	(1)
32.3.5 Total Integrated Light Scattering (SP, SE)	429	(1)
32.4 Results and Instruments Comparison	429	(3)
32.5 Conclusion	432	(1)
References	433	(1)
33 Surface Analysis of Precision Weights for the Study of Commonly Occurring Contaminants	434	(1)
Ulf Jacobsson and Peter Sjövall
33.1 Introduction	434	(1)
33.2 Experimental	435	(3)
33.3 Results	438	(4)
33.4 Discussion and Conclusions	442	(1)
References	442	(1)
34 Tip-Shape Effect on the Accuracy of Capacitance Determination by Scanning Capacitance Microscopes	443	(1)
Štefan Lányi
34.1 Introduction	443	(2)
34.2 Probe geometry	445	(1)
34.3 Simulated topographic Artifacts	446	(1)
34.4 Results	447	(3)
34.5 Discussion	450	(1)
References	451	(1)
35 Atomic Force Microscope Tip Influence on the Fractal and Multi-Fractal Analyses of the Properties of Randomly Rough Surfaces	452	(1)
P. Klapetek, I. Ohildal, and J. Bi1ek
35.1 Introduction	452	(1)
35.2 Data Simulation and Processing	453	(1)
35.3 Fractal Properties Analysis	454	(3)
35.4 Multi-Fractal Properties Analysis	457	(3)
35.5 Results and Discussion	460	(1)
35.6 Conclusion	461	(1)
References	462	(3)
Part X Application - Material Properties
36 Atomic Force Microscope Indentation Measurement Software	465	(50)
David Shuman
36.1 Introduction	465	(3)
36.2 Experimental Details	468	(11)
36.2.1 Sample Preparation	469	(1)
36.2.2 Indentation Procedure	469	(1)
36.2.3 AFM Calibration	469	(1)
36.2.4 Surface Height and Roughness	470	(1)
36.2.5 Projected Area	470	(3)
36.2.6 Projected Area	473	(1)
36.2.7 Surface Area	473	(1)
36.2.8 Elastic Reconstruction	474	(1)
36.2.9 Building the Area Functions	475	(1)
36.2.10 Indenter Angle and Radius	476	(1)
36.2.11 NanoMc Hardness	477	(2)
36.3 Conclusion	479	(1)
Acknowledgments	479	(1)
References	480	(1)
37 Nanodeformation Analysis Near Small Cracks by Means of NanoDAC Technique	481	(1)
Jürgen Keller, Dietmar Vogel, and Bernd Michel
37.1 Introduction	481	(1)
37.2 Digital Image Correlation on SPM Images	482	(6)
37.2.1 Principle of NanoDAC	482	(2)
37.2.2 Stability Aspects of SPM Measurements	484	(4)
37.3 Crack Evaluation	488	(3)
37.3.1 Experimental Setup	488	(1)
37.3.2 Crack Opening Displacement Analysis	489	(2)
37.4 Adaptation to Finite Element Analysis	491	(5)
37.4.1 Adaptation Concept	491	(2)
37.4.2 Mesh Transfer from FEA to Experiment	493	(1)
37.4.3 Verification Platform	494	(1)
Derotation and Displacement Matching	494	(1)
Determination of Material Properties	495	(1)
37.5 Application of DIC to Micromachined Gas Sensor	496	(2)
37.6 Conclusions	498	(1)
Acknowledgments	498	(1)
References	498	(2)
38 PTB's Precision Interferometer for High Accuracy Characterization of Thermal Expansion Properties of Low Expansion Materials	500	(1)
R. Schödel and A. Abou-Zeid
38.1 Introduction	500	(3)
38.2 Experimental Setup	503	(4)
38.2.1 Description of the Interferometer	503	(1)
38.2.2 Sample Design	504	(2)
38.2.3 Autocollimation Adjustment	506	(1)
38.3 Check Measurements	507	(1)
38.4 Measurement Examples	508	(6)
38.4.1 Thermal Expansion and Uncertainty	509	(2)
38.4.2 CTE Homogeneity	511	(1)
38.4.3 Temporal Length Changes	512	(2)
38.5 Concluding Remark	514	(1)
References	514	(1)
Index	515