Natural Hazards and Disasters

by Hyndman, Donald; Hyndman, David

• ISBN13: 9780534997601
• ISBN10: 0534997600
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-03-17
• Publisher: Brooks Cole

Summary

1. Introduction. 2. Plate Tectonics and Physical Hazards. 3. Earthquakes and Earthquake Waves. 4. Earthquake Prediction and Tectonic Environments. 5. Tsunami. 6. Volcanoes: Materials, Hazards, and Eruptive Mechanisms. 7. Volcanoes: Types, Behavior, and Risks. 8. Landslides. 9. Sinkholes, Land Subsidence, and Swelling Soils. 10. Climate and Weather Related To Hazards. 11. Streams and Flood Processes. 12. Floods and Human Interactions. 13. Waves, Beaches, and Coastal Erosion. 14. Hurricanes and Nor'easters. 15. Thunder Storms and Tornadoes. 16. Wildfires. 17. Impact of Asteroids and Comets. 18. The Future: Where Do We Go From Here?

Table of Contents

Preface	xv
Natural Hazards and Disasters: Catastrophic Events in Nature	1	(11)
Living in Harm's Way	1	(2)
Avoiding Natural Disasters	3	(1)
Land Use Planning	3	(1)
Pointing the Blame Finger	3	(1)
Predicting Catastrophe	4	(1)
Randomness in Natural Events	5	(1)
Hazard and Risk	6	(2)
Population and Social Pressures	8	(1)
The Role of Public Education	9	(1)
Key Points	10	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	11	(1)
Questions for Review	11	(1)
Further Reading	11	(1)
Plate Tectonics and Physical Hazards	12	(23)
Development of the Theory	12	(4)
Earth Structure	16	(17)
Where Plates Pull Apart (Spreading Zones or Divergent Boundaries)	23	(1)
Where Plates Come Together (Convergent Boundaries)	24	(5)
Where Plates Slide Past Each Other (Transform Faults)	29	(1)
Hotspot Volcanoes	30	(3)
Box 2.1 The Scientific Method	33	(1)
Summary	33	(1)
Key Points	33	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	34	(1)
Questions for Review	34	(1)
Further Reading	34	(1)
Earthquakes and Their Damages: Shaking Ground, Collapsing Buildings	35	(29)
Earthquakes Up Close
Loma Prieta, 1989	36	(2)
Earthquakes and Earthquake Waves	38	(1)
Frequency and Wavelength	38	(1)
Seismographs	39	(1)
Box 3.1 Movement of a Pendulum	39	(2)
Faults and Earthquakes	41	(3)
Causes of Earthquakes	42	(2)
Locating Earthquakes	44	(1)
Earthquake Size and Characteristics	44	(6)
Mercalli Intensity Scale	45	(2)
Richter Magnitude Scale	47	(1)
Large-Earthquake Characteristics	47	(1)
Earthquake Frequency	48	(1)
Ground Acceleration, Shaking Time, and Displacement	48	(2)
Ground Motion and Failure During Earthquakes	50	(1)
Liquefaction	50	(1)
Case in Point
Mexico City Earthquake, 1985	51	(2)
Quick Clays	52	(1)
Landslides	52	(1)
Effect of Bedrock Structure	53	(1)
Damage Control	53	(1)
Case in Point
Armenian Earthquake, 1988	53	(4)
Case in Point
Kobe Earthquake, Japan, 1995	57	(2)
Earthquake Effects on Buildings	59	(3)
Building Vibration and Oscillation	60	(1)
Base Isolation	60	(2)
Key Points	62	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	63	(1)
Questions for Review	63	(1)
Further Reading	63	(1)
Earthquake Prediction and Tectonic Environments	64	(35)
Predicting Earthquakes	64	(1)
Earthquake Predictions and Consequences	65	(1)
Earthquake Precursors	65	(1)
Case in Point
Haicheng and Tangshan Earthquakes, China, 1975 and 1976	66	(7)
Seismic Gaps	67	(1)
Migrating Earthquakes	68	(1)
Earthquake Regularity	68	(1)
Paleoseismology	69	(1)
Water as a Triggering Mechanism?	69	(2)
Early Warning Systems	71	(1)
Long-Term Forecasts and Risk Maps	71	(1)
Psychics	72	(1)
Surviving Earthquakes	73	(1)
The San Andreas Fault	73	(12)
San Francisco Bay Area Earthquakes	77	(2)
Hayward and Rodgers Creek Faults	79	(2)
Los Angeles Area Earthquakes	81	(4)
Tectonic Environments of Major Earthquakes	85	(11)
Transform Faults	85	(2)
Subduction Zones	87	(1)
Blind Thrust Faults over an Active Subduction Zone	88	(1)
Continent-Continent Collision Zones	88	(2)
Blind Thrust Faults Associated with a Continental Collision Zone	90	(1)
Continental Spreading Zones	91	(2)
Intraplate Earthquakes without Obvious Tectonic Context	93	(3)
The Potential for Still Larger Events	96	(1)
Key Points	97	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	97	(1)
Questions for Review	98	(1)
Further Reading	98	(1)
Tsunami: The Great Wave	99	(28)
Harbor Waves	99	(5)
Sumatra Tsunami: December 2004	99	(3)
Chile Tsunami: May 1960	102	(2)
Tsunami Generation	104	(2)
Earthquake-Generated Tsunami	104	(1)
Volcano-Generated Tsunami	105	(1)
Tsunami from Fast-Moving Landslides or Rockfalls	105	(1)
Case in Point
Anchorage, Alaska, 1964	106	(2)
Case in Point
Hokkaida, Japan, 1993	108	(1)
Case in Point
Lituya Bay, Alaska, 1958	109	(1)
Case in Point
Glacier Bay, Alaska	110	(1)
Case in Point
Krakatau	111	(3)
Tsunami from Volcano Flank Collapse	111	(3)
Tsunami from Asteroid Impact	114	(1)
Velocity and Height	114	(2)
Coastal Effects and Vulnerability	116	(6)
Tsunami from Great Earthquakes in the Pacific North west	118	(4)
Tsunami Hazard Mitigation	122	(1)
Surviving a Tsunami	122	(1)
Tsunami Examples	122	(1)
Seiches	122	(2)
The Potential for Giant Tsunami	124	(1)
Key Points	125	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	126	(1)
Questions for Review	126	(1)
Further Reading	126	(1)
Volcanoes: Materials, Hazards, and Eruptive Mechanisms	127	(24)
Volcanoes Up Close
Mount St. Helens Eruption, 1980	128	(2)
Mount St. Helens Eruption, May 18, 1980	130	(4)
Preamble to the May 18 Eruption	131	(3)
Types of Volcanic Hazards and Products	134	(8)
Lava Flows	134	(2)
Oceanic Ridges	136	(1)
Continental Flood Basalts	136	(1)
Ash Falls	137	(1)
Ash Flows, Glowing Avalanches, and Surges	138	(4)
Magma Chambers and the Driving Force behind Eruptions	142	(7)
Magma Chambers	142	(1)
Explosive Eruptions	143	(1)
Volcanic Mudflows	143	(2)
Poisonous Gases	145	(1)
Volcanic Behavior: Relationships to Viscosity, Volatiles, and Volume	146	(3)
Key Points	149	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	150	(1)
Questions for Review	150	(1)
Further Reading	150	(1)
Volcanoes: Types, Behavior, and Risks	151	(36)
Basaltic Volcanoes	151	(6)
Shield Volcanoes	151	(4)
Cinder Cones	155	(2)
Andesitic Volcanoes: Stratovolcanoes	157	(1)
Case in Point
The High Cascades	157	(8)
Mount St. Helens	159	(1)
Mount Hood	159	(1)
Mount Rainier	159	(2)
Mount Lassen	161	(1)
Mount Mazama (Crater Lake)	162	(1)
Three Sisters	163	(1)
Mount Shasta	164	(1)
Rhyolitic Volcanoes	165	(1)
Lava Domes	165	(1)
Case in Point
Mount Pelee, Martinique, West Indies	166	(4)
Giant Continental Calderas	168	(2)
Case in Point
Yellowstone Volcano	170	(1)
Volcanic Eruptions and Products	171	(2)
Explosive Eruption Styles	172	(1)
Assessment of Hazard and Risk of Volcanoes	173	(1)
Ancient Eruptions	173	(1)
Case in Point
Santorini, Greece	174	(4)
Eruption Warnings: Volcanic Precursors	176	(2)
Case in Point
Mount Pinatubo	178	(2)
Case in Point
Vesuvius and Its Neighbors	180	(5)
Violent Eruptions and Active Subduction Zones	185	(1)
A Look Ahead	185	(1)
Key Points	185	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	186	(1)
Questions for Review	186	(1)
Further Reading	186	(1)
Landslides and Other Downslope Movements: Falling Mountains	187	(41)
Factors Controlling Downslope Movement of Landslides	187	(1)
Landslides Up Close
La Conchita, California	188	(2)
Load	189	(1)
Slope	189	(1)
Slope Material: Strength and Friction	190	(8)
Friction	190	(1)
A Little Water	191	(1)
Too Much Water	191	(2)
Clays and Clay Behavior	193	(1)
Liquefaction and Earthquakes	194	(1)
Quick Clays	194	(1)
Earthquakes Trigger Many Landslides	195	(1)
Internal Surfaces	196	(2)
Old Landslides	198	(1)
Types of Downslope Movement	198	(2)
Rockfalls and Rock Avalanches	198	(2)
Debris Avalanches	200	(1)
Case in Point
Rockfall Hazards West of Denver	200	(1)
Case in Point
Rockville Rockfall, Southwestern Utah	201	(1)
Case in Point
Madison Slide, Montana	202	(1)
Case in Point
Frank Slide, Alberta	203	(1)
Case in Point
Elam, Switzerland	204	(1)
Case in Point
Yungay, Peru	205	(5)
Rotational Slides and Slumps	206	(1)
Stresses on the Shear Surface: Method of Slices	207	(1)
Sackung	208	(1)
Translational Slides	208	(2)
Case in Point
The Vaiont Landslide	210	(6)
Lateral-Spreading Slides	212	(1)
Debris Flows	212	(4)
Case in Point
A Tropical Climate Debris-Flow and Flood Disaster	216	(4)
Danger Signs: Evidence for Former Debris Flows	219	(1)
Mudflows and Earthflows	220	(2)
Soil Creep	221	(1)
Rates of Downslope Movements	222	(1)
Submarine Slides	222	(2)
Volcano Flank Collapse	222	(1)
Failure of Landslide Dams	223	(1)
Landslide Influences and Hazard Maps	224	(1)
Why Do People Build in Landslide-Prone Areas?	224	(2)
Key Points	226	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	227	(1)
Questions for Review	227	(1)
Further Reading	227	(1)
Sinkholes, Land Subsidence, and Swelling Soils	228	(17)
Ground Collapse and Sinkholes	228	(1)
Formation of Cavities in Limestone	228	(3)
Collapsing Cavities	230	(1)
Sinkholes in Different Regions	231	(2)
Central Florida Sinkholes	231	(1)
Sinkhole Problems in Central and Eastern Pennsylvania	232	(1)
Sinkholes in Kentucky	233	(1)
Collapse over a Salt Mine in Western New York	233	(1)
Land Subsidence	233	(2)
Mining Groundwater and Petroleum	233	(2)
Case in Point
San Joaquin Valley of California	235	(3)
Drainage of Organic Soils	237	(1)
Ground Subsidence with Drying of Clays	237	(1)
Case in Point
Venice, Italy	238	(2)
Swelling Soils	240	(2)
Case in Point
Denver's Swelling Soils	242	(2)
Key Points	244	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	244	(1)
Questions for Review	244	(1)
Further Reading	244	(1)
Climate and Weather Related to Hazards: Storms on the Horizon	245	(23)
Global Warming	245	(3)
Atmospheric Cooling	248	(1)
Case in Point
Mount Tambora	248	(1)
Climatic Cycles?	248	(3)
Days	249	(1)
Seasons	249	(1)
Precession of the Equinoxes: ~26,000 Years	249	(1)
Change in the Tilt of Earth's Axis: ~41,000 Years	249	(1)
Change in the Elliptical Shape of Earth's Orbit: ~100,000-Year Cycles	249	(2)
Basic Elements of Weather	251	(9)
Hydrologic Cycle and Humidity	251	(1)
Adiabatic Cooling and Condensation	252	(1)
Atmospheric Pressure and Weather	253	(1)
Coriolis Effect	254	(2)
Global Air Circulation	256	(1)
Jet Stream	257	(1)
Weather Fronts	258	(2)
El Nino	260	(2)
Normal Pattern	260	(1)
El Nino Conditions	261	(1)
Predicting El Nino	262	(1)
North Atlantic Oscillation	262	(1)
Climate Controls on Flooding	263	(2)
Importance of Duration and Intensity of Rainfall	264	(1)
Dry Climates	265	(1)
Strong Winds Not Associated with Storms	265	(1)
Chinook Winds	265	(1)
Santa Ana Winds	265	(1)
Key Points	265	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	266	(1)
Questions for Review	266	(1)
Further Reading	267	(1)
Streams and Flood Processes: Rising Waters	268	(29)
Stream Flow and Sediment Transport Processes	269	(1)
Stream Flow and Gradient	269	(1)
Floods Up Close
Big Thompson Canyon, Northwest of Denver	270	(7)
Bankfull Channel Width, Depth, and Capacity	272	(1)
Sediment Transport and Stream Equilibrium	273	(4)
Sediment Transport Mechanisms	277	(1)
Stream Types	277	(5)
Meandering Streams	277	(3)
Braided Streams	280	(1)
Bedrock Streams	281	(1)
The Hydrograph	282	(2)
Precipitation Intensity and Runoff	282	(1)
Stream Order and Hydrograph Shape	283	(1)
Flood Crests Move Downstream	283	(1)
Floods on Frozen or Water-Saturated Ground	284	(1)
Destructive Energy of Floods	285	(1)
Stream Power	285	(1)
Flood Frequency and Recurrence Intervals	285	(1)
Recurrence Intervals and Discharge	285	(1)
Case in Point
Spring Thaw from the South on a North-Flowing River	286	(2)
Case in Point
Guadalupe River Upstream of New Braunfels, Texas	288	(4)
Problems with Recurrence Intervals	290	(2)
Floodplains and 100-Year Floodplains	292	(2)
Flood Insurance	293	(1)
Key Points	294	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	295	(1)
Questions for Review	295	(1)
Further Reading	296	(1)
Floods and Human Interactions	297	(29)
Effects of Development on Floodplains	297	(1)
Levees	297	(9)
The Great Mississippi River Basin Flood of 1993	299	(4)
Intentional Levee Breaks	303	(1)
Levees, Safety, and Costs	304	(1)
Avulsion	305	(1)
Channelization	305	(1)
Case in Point
Yellow (Huang-Ho) River of China	306	(2)
Case in Point
New Orleans	308	(2)
Case in Point
A Channelized Old World River	310	(2)
Flood Control and Multipurpose Dams	311	(1)
Floods Caused by Failure of Human-Made Dams	311	(1)
Case in Point
Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley, California	312	(3)
Urbanization	314	(1)
Case in Point
Failure of the Teton Dam, Idaho	315	(2)
Flash Flood Hazards	316	(1)
Changes Imposed on Streams	317	(3)
Forest Fires and Range Fires	317	(1)
Logging and Overgrazing	317	(1)
Hydraulic Placer Mining	317	(1)
Dams and Stream Equilibrium	318	(1)
Bridges	319	(1)
Mining of Stream Sand and Gravel	319	(1)
Paleoflood Analysis	320	(1)
Early Postflood Evidence	320	(1)
Case in Point
Channel Deepening and Groundwater Loss from Gravel Mining	321	(2)
Paleoflood Markers	322	(1)
Review of Factors That Influence Floods	323	(1)
Complexity, or ``Coincident Criticality'' and Floods	324	(1)
Key Points	324	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	325	(1)
Questions for Review	325	(1)
Further Reading	325	(1)
Waves, Beaches, and Coastal Erosion: Rivers of Sand	326	(25)
Living on Dangerous Coasts	326	(1)
Waves	327	(2)
Beaches	329	(3)
Wave Refraction and Longshore Drift	329	(2)
Waves on Rocky Coasts	331	(1)
Beach Slope: An Equilibrium Profile	331	(1)
Rip Currents	332	(1)
Loss of Sand from the Beach	332	(1)
People Move to the Beach	332	(1)
Beach Erosion and Hardening	333	(5)
Reduction of Sand Supply	333	(1)
Artificial Barriers to Wave Action	333	(4)
Areas of Severe Erosion	337	(1)
Beach Replenishment	338	(9)
Erosion of Gently Sloping Coasts and Barrier Islands	341	(1)
Dunes	341	(2)
Barrier Bars at Estuaries and Inlets	343	(4)
Erosion Along Cliff-Bound Coasts	347	(2)
Letting Nature Take Its Course	349	(1)
Key Points	349	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	350	(1)
Questions for Review	350	(1)
Further Reading	350	(1)
Hurricanes and Nor'Easters: The Big Winds	351	(46)
Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Cyclones	351	(1)
Hurricanes Up Close
Hurricane Hugo	352	(3)
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale	355	(1)
Formation of Hurricanes and Cyclones	355	(2)
Case in Point
Hurricane Camille	357	(1)
Case in Point
Hurricane Isabel	358	(4)
Extratropical Cyclones, Including Nor'easters	362	(3)
Winter Windstorms and Heavy Snow	364	(1)
Case in Point
Superstorm, March 1993	365	(1)
Case in Point
Tropical Storm Allison	365	(3)
Storm Surges	368	(4)
Case in Point
Galveston Hurricane	372	(2)
Waves and Wave Damages	374	(1)
Winds and Wind Damages	375	(3)
Rainfall and Flooding	378	(1)
Case in Point
Hurricanes Dennis and Floyd, 1999	379	(3)
Deaths in Hurricanes	382	(1)
Case in Point
Hurricane Andrew	383	(1)
Poor Countries: Different Problems	384	(1)
Building Restrictions	385	(1)
Case in Point
Hurricane Mitch	386	(3)
Case in Point
Cyclones of Bangladesh and Calcutta, India	389	(2)
Hurricane Prediction and Warnings	391	(3)
Categories of Hurricane Warning	392	(2)
Hurricane Modification?	394	(1)
A More Damaging Hurricane than Any in Historic Time?	394	(1)
Key Points	395	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	396	(1)
Questions for Review	396	(1)
Further Reading	396	(1)
Thunderstorms and Tornadoes	397	(18)
Thunderstorms	397	(4)
Lightning	398	(3)
Downbursts	401	(1)
Hail	401	(1)
Tornadoes	401	(10)
The Fujita Scale	402	(5)
Tornado Development	407	(1)
Tornado Damage and Risks	407	(4)
Case in Point
Oklahoma Tornado Outbreak	411	(1)
Case in Point
Superoutbreak of 1974	412	(1)
Key Points	413
Important Words and Concepts	141	(273)
Questions for Review	414	(1)
Further Reading	414	(1)
Wildfires: Fanned Flames	415	(13)
Wildfires Up Close
The Black Mountain Fire, Missoula, Montana	416	(1)
Fire Process and Behavior	417	(1)
Case in Point
Storm King Mountain, Colorado	418	(2)
Case in Point
Southern California Firestorm, 2003	420	(2)
Fire Suppression and Prevention	422	(1)
Erosion Following Wildfires	422	(1)
Some Concerns	423	(1)
Case in Point
Bitterroot Valley Fires, Summer 2000	424	(2)
Key Points	426	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	426	(1)
Questions for Review	427	(1)
Further Reading	427	(1)
Impact of Asteroids and Comets	428	(16)
Projectiles from Space: The Ultimate Catastrophe?	428	(2)
Chondrites	430	(1)
Achondrites	430	(1)
Identification of Meteorites	430	(1)
Collision Course?	430	(1)
Evolution of an Impact Crater	431	(1)
Some Key Points and Evidence for an Impact	432	(1)
Case in Point
Meteor Crater, Arizona	433	(1)
Case in Point
Popigai Crater in Northern Siberia	434	(2)
Case in Point
The Sudbury Complex, Ontario	436	(1)
Case in Point
Ries Crater in Germany	437	(1)
Chances of a Large Asteroid Impact on Earth	437	(1)
Likely Consequences of Impacts with Earth	437	(1)
Impact of a Large Asteroid	437	(1)
Case in Point
Chicxulub Impact Crater	438	(1)
A Modest-Sized Asteroid Impact	439	(1)
Doomsday?	439	(1)
What Could We Do About an Incoming Asteroid?	439	(2)
Falling Rocks: Your Personal Chance of Being Hit by a Meteorite?	440	(1)
Other Consequences of a Major Asteroid Impact	441	(1)
Lunar Maria	441	(1)
Case in Point
Tungusika, Siberia	441	(1)
Summary	441	(1)
Key Points	442	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	442	(1)
Questions for Review	442	(1)
Further Reading	443	(1)
The Future: Where Do We Go from Here?	444	(7)
We Are the Problem	444	(2)
Hazard Assessment and Mitigation	446	(1)
Societal Attitudes	446	(2)
Education	447	(1)
Different Ground Rules for the Poor	448	(2)
Key Points	450	(1)
Important Words and Concepts	450	(1)
Questions for Review	450	(1)
Further Reading	450	(1)
APPENDIX 1 Geological Time Scale	451	(1)
APPENDIX 2 Mineral and Rock Characteristics Related to Hazards	452	(11)
Igneous Rocks	452	(1)
Sedimentary Rocks	452	(1)
Metamorphic Rocks	453	(1)
Weak Rocks and Strong Rocks	453	(1)
Common Rock-Forming Minerals	453	(4)
Common Rocks	457	(5)
Granite	457	(1)
Gabbro	457	(1)
Rhyolite	458	(1)
Andesite and Dacite	459	(1)
Basalt	459	(1)
Shale and Mudstone	460	(1)
Sandstone	460	(1)
Limestone	460	(1)
Slate	460	(1)
Schist	461	(1)
Gneiss	461	(1)
Serpentinite	462	(1)
Rocks, Landscapes, and Hazards	462	(1)
APPENDIX 3 Conversion Factors	463	(2)
Glossary	465	(15)
Index	480