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Preface | p. IX |
Optical Refrigeration in Solids: Fundamentals and Overview | p. 1 |
Basic Concepts | p. 1 |
The Four-Level Model for Optical Refrigeration | p. 4 |
Cooling Rare-Earth-Doped Solids | p. 7 |
Prospects for Laser Cooling in Semiconductors | p. 12 |
Experimental Work on Optical Refrigeration in Semiconductors | p. 21 |
Future Outlook | p. 26 |
References | p. 28 |
Design and Fabrication of Rare-Earth-Doped Laser Cooling Materials | p. 33 |
History of Laser Cooling Materials | p. 33 |
Material Design Considerations | p. 36 |
Active Ions | p. 37 |
Rare-Earth Ions for Laser Cooling | p. 37 |
Active Ion Concentration | p. 39 |
Host Materials | p. 40 |
Multiphonon Relaxation | p. 40 |
Chemical Durability | p. 42 |
Thermal and Thermomechanical Properties | p. 42 |
Refractive Index | p. 43 |
Material Purity | p. 45 |
Vibrational Impurities | p. 45 |
Metal-Ion Impurities | p. 46 |
Preparation of High-Purity Precursors | p. 48 |
Strategies for Preparing High-Purity Precursors | p. 48 |
Process Conditions | p. 50 |
Purity of Commercial Precursors | p. 50 |
Process Equipment | p. 50 |
Clean Environment | p. 51 |
Material Purification | p. 51 |
Filtration and Recrystallization | p. 51 |
Solvent Extraction Using Chelating Agents | p. 52 |
Fluorination and Drying in Hydrogen Fluoride Gas | p. 54 |
Sublimation and Distillation | p. 55 |
Electrochemical Purification | p. 57 |
Determination of Trace Impurity Levels | p. 57 |
Glass Fabrication | p. 59 |
Glass Formation in ZrF4 Systems | p. 59 |
ZBLAN Glass Fabrication | p. 62 |
Melting of the Starting Materials | p. 62 |
Evaporative Losses | p. 63 |
Dissolution and Homogenization | p. 63 |
Optimum Rate of Cooling | p. 63 |
Viscosity for Casting | p. 64 |
Typical Glass Fabrication Parameters | p. 64 |
Fluoride, Chloride, and Sulfide Glass Fabrication | p. 65 |
Halide Crystal Growth | p. 65 |
Promising Future Materials | p. 66 |
Simplified Fluoride Glasses | p. 67 |
Fluoride Crystals | p. 67 |
Chloride and Bromide Crystals | p. 68 |
References | p. 68 |
Laser Cooling in Fluoride Single Crystals | p. 75 |
Introduction | p. 75 |
Physical Properties | p. 77 |
Experimental | p. 78 |
Growth Apparatus | p. 78 |
Spectroscopic Setup | p. 80 |
Cooling Setup | p. 81 |
Spectroscopic Analysis | p. 83 |
Cooling Results | p. 87 |
Cooling Potential | p. 87 |
Bulk Cooling | p. 89 |
Conclusion | p. 93 |
References | p. 94 |
Er3+-Doped Materials for Solid-State Cooling | p. 97 |
Low Phonon Energy Materials | p. 97 |
KPb2Cl5 Crystal | p. 98 |
Fluorochloride Glasses | p. 101 |
Internal Cooling Measurements | p. 101 |
Bulk Cooling Measurements | p. 105 |
Influence of Upconversion Processes on the Cooling Efficiency of Er3+ | p. 108 |
Spectroscopic Grounds: Upconversion Properties of Er3+ Under Pumping in the 4I9/2 Manifold | p. 108 |
A Phenomenological Cooling Model Including Upconversion | p. 111 |
References | p. 114 |
Laser Refrigerator Design and Applications | p. 117 |
Introduction | p. 117 |
Modeling | p. 119 |
Modeling Results | p. 121 |
Design Issues | p. 124 |
Mirror Heating | p. 129 |
Applications | p. 133 |
Comparison to Other Refrigeration Technologies | p. 133 |
Vibration | p. 133 |
Electromagnetic and Magnetic Noise | p. 134 |
Reliability and Lifetime | p. 134 |
Ruggedness | p. 134 |
Cryocooler Mass and Volume | p. 134 |
Efficiency and System Mass | p. 134 |
Cost | p. 136 |
Microcooling Applications | p. 136 |
References | p. 138 |
Microscopic Theory of Luminescence and its Application to the Optical Refrigeration of Semiconductors | p. 139 |
Introduction | p. 139 |
Microscopic Theory of Absorption and Luminescence | p. 141 |
Cooling Theory | p. 151 |
Cooling of Bulk GaAs | p. 153 |
Cooling of GaAs Quantum Wells | p. 159 |
Cooling of Doped Bulk Semiconductors | p. 162 |
Conclusion | p. 164 |
References | p. 165 |
Improving the Efficiency of Laser Cooling of Semiconductors by Means of Bandgap Engineering in Electronic and Photonic Domains | p. 169 |
Introduction | p. 169 |
Engineering the Density of States Using Donor-Acceptor Transitions | p. 171 |
Refrigeration Using Phonon-Assisted Transitions | p. 174 |
Laser Cooling Using Type II Quantum Wells | p. 180 |
Photonic Bandgap for Laser Cooling | p. 186 |
Novel Means of Laser Cooling Using Surface Plasmon Polaritons | p. 189 |
Conclusions | p. 193 |
References | p. 194 |
Thermodynamics of Optical Cooling of Bulk Matter | p. 197 |
Introduction | p. 197 |
Historical Review of Optical Cooling Thermodynamics | p. 198 |
Quantitative Radiation Thermodynamics | p. 204 |
Ideal and Actual Performance of Optical Refrigerators | p. 214 |
Closing Remarks | p. 225 |
References | p. 230 |
Index | p. 233 |
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