Optoelectronic Devices: III Nitrides

by Henini; Razeghi

• ISBN13: 9780080444260
• ISBN10: 0080444261
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-03-23
• Publisher: Elsevier Science

Summary

Tremendous progress has been made in the last few years in the growth, doping and processing technologies of the wide bandgap semiconductors. As a result, this class of materials now holds significant promis for semiconductor electronics in a broad range of applications. The principal driver for the current revival of interest in III-V Nitrides is their potential use in high power, high temperature, high frequency and optical devices resistant to radiation damage. This book provides a wide number of optoelectronic applications of III-V nitrides and covers the entire process from growth to devices and applications making it essential reading for those working in the semiconductors or microelectronics.

Table of Contents

Preface	v
Introduction
Introduction	1	(22)
References	8	(10)
The Rise of III-Nitrides: An Introduction
References	18	(5)
The Evolution of Nitride Semiconductors
Introduction	23	(2)
Nitride Research in the Early Days	25	(1)
Breakthroughs in Crystal Growth	26	(1)
Evolution of Nitride-based Blue Light-emitting Devices	27	(1)
Progress in the Study of Nitride-based Quantum Structures	28	(2)
Reduction of Threading Dislocation Density	30	(2)
GaN	30	(1)
AlGaN	31	(1)
UV Led	32	(4)
Difficulty of High-efficiency UV-Led	32	(1)
Wavelength Variation of UV-Led with Low Dislocation Density	33	(2)
Improvement of External Quantum Efficiency for 363-nm Led	35	(1)
Conclusion	36	(3)
Acknowledgements	36	(1)
References	36	(3)
Technology of Movpe Production Tools
Introduction	39	(1)
Types of Reactors	40	(17)
Horizontal Tube Reactors	40	(2)
Planetary Reactors	42	(1)
Concept	42	(1)
Up-scaling	43	(1)
Growth Results	44	(3)
Future Developments	47	(1)
Close-coupled Showerhead Reactors	47	(1)
Concept	47	(4)
Scale-up	51	(1)
Growth Results	51	(6)
Computational Modelling of Nitride MOVPE Processes and Reactors	57	(5)
Introduction	57	(1)
Fluid Flow Dynamics, Heat Transfer and Related Gas Phase Transport Phenomena	58	(1)
Chemical Kinetics	59	(2)
Mathematical Model	61	(1)
Numerical Methods and Software	62	(1)
In Situ Technologies	62	(8)
Measurement of Layer Properties	62	(1)
Measurement of Surface Temperature	63	(3)
Integration of In Situ Technologies into Modern Epitaxy Systems	66	(1)
Mechanical Integration	66	(1)
Software Integration	67	(1)
References	67	(3)
Mocvd Growth of Group III Nitrides for High-Power, High-Frequency Applications
Introduction	70	(1)
GaN MESFET Devices	71	(7)
Experimental Procedure	71	(1)
Results	71	(7)
GaAIN/GaN HEMT Devices	78	(15)
Sapphire Substrate	78	(1)
Experimental Procedure	78	(1)
Material Property Results	78	(5)
Device Results	83	(3)
Silicon Carbide Substrate	86	(1)
Experimental Procedure	86	(1)
Material Property Results	87	(1)
GaN Nucleation Layer	87	(1)
Substrate Surface Preparation	88	(1)
GaAIN Nucleation Layers	89	(1)
Device Results	90	(3)
Conclusion	93	(2)
Acknowledgements	93	(1)
References	94	(1)
Growth of Nitride Quantum Dots
Introduction	95	(5)
Growth of Strain-induced Quantum Dots	100	(15)
Self-assembled Quantum Dots by MBE	100	(8)
Self-assembled Quantum Dots by MOCVD	108	(5)
Stacking of Self-assembled Quantum Dots	113	(2)
Growth of Quantum Dots by Anti-Surfactant	115	(7)
Growth of Quantum Dots by Selective Epitaxy	122	(3)
Novel Techniques for Quantum Dot Growth	125	(3)
Conclusions	128	(5)
References	129	(4)
Ain Epitaxial Layers for UV Photonics
Introduction	133	(2)
Epitaxial Growth and Characterization	135	(5)
Optical Properties of AIN	140	(20)
Band Structure of Wurtzite AIN	140	(6)
Unique Polarization Properties of AIGaN Alloys and AIN	146	(4)
Exciton Recombination Dynamics in AIN	150	(6)
Optical Properties of Nitrogen and Aluminum Vacancy Complexes in Ain Epilayers	156	(4)
Impurity Parameters and Conductivity Control in High Al-content AIGaN and AIN	160	(9)
Si Donors and N-type AlGaN and AIN	160	(5)
Mg Acceptors in AIGaN and AIN	165	(4)
AIN Epilayers for Device Applications	169	(6)
AIN Epilayer as a Template	169	(3)
AIN for Surface Acoustic Wave Devices	172	(1)
AIN-based Field Emission Devices	173	(2)
Concluding Remarks	175	(10)
Acknowledgements	177	(1)
References	177	(8)
Properties of III--V Nitrides Substrates and Homoepitaxial Layers
Introduction	185	(2)
Growth of III-nitride Substrates	187	(4)
Growth of Bulk and Thick-film GaN	187	(3)
Growth of Bulk and Thick-film AIN	190	(1)
Structural Properties of III-Nitrides Substrates	191	(3)
Optical and Electronic Properties of III-nitride Substrates	194	(9)
Bulk and Thick-film GaN	195	(4)
Bulk and Thick-film AIN	199	(4)
Optical and Electronic Properties of Homoepitaxial III-nitride Films	203	(2)
Homoepitaxial GaN Films	203	(1)
Homoepitaxial AIN Films	204	(1)
Closing Remarks	205	(8)
Acknowledgements	205	(1)
References	206	(7)
III-Nitride Ultraviolet Light Emitting Sources
Introduction	213	(1)
The Need for UV Light Emitters	213	(2)
Basic Structure of III-nitride based UV LEDs	215	(7)
Growth of UV LED Structures	216	(1)
Low-temperature AIN Buffer	216	(2)
Growth of Crack-free AlGaN Layers	218	(1)
Doping of High Al-content AlxGa1--xN layers	219	(3)
GaN/InGaN UV LEDs (365 < λ < 400 nm)	222	(1)
(A1)GaN/(A1)InGaN UV LDs (360 < λ < 400 nm)	222	(1)
Short-Wavelength UV LEDs (λ < 365 nm)	223	(28)
Top-emission AlGaN UV LEDs	223	(2)
UV LEDs (340 nm) Grown on GaN Substrate	225	(2)
Back-emission AlGaN UV LEDs	227	(1)
Growth, Processing, and Characterization of UV LEDs (λ = 280 nm)	227	(8)
Non-radiative Centers in Short-wavelength UV LEDs	235	(2)
Effects of Self-heating and Current Crowding on the Performance of Short-wavelength UV LEDs	237	(5)
Deep UV LEDs (λ = 265 nm)	242	(4)
Acknowledgements	246	(1)
References	246	(5)
III-Nitride UV Photoconductors
Introduction	251	(2)
The Solar Ultraviolet Spectrum	251	(1)
UV Photodetector Applications	251	(2)
UV Detection Technologies	253	(1)
Development of UV Photodetectors	253	(10)
Photoconductors	254	(1)
Schottky Metal-Semiconductor--Metal Detectors	255	(2)
Schottky Barrier Photodiodes	257	(1)
p--i--n Photodiodes	257	(5)
Avalanche Photodiodes	262	(1)
Important Photodetector Parameters	263	(5)
General Photodetector Parameters	263	(1)
Basic Noise Analysis Theory	264	(1)
Noise Analysis in GaN p--i--n Photodiodes	265	(2)
Noise Analysis in AIGaN p--i--n Photodiodes	267	(1)
Growth, Processing and Measurement of Back-Illuminated p--i--n Photodetectors	268	(8)
Introduction	268	(1)
Material Growth and Characterization	269	(4)
p--i--n Photodetector Processing	273	(1)
Photodetector Measurement and Discussion	274	(2)
Focal Plane Arrays	276	(9)
Introduction to Focal Plane Array Technology	276	(1)
Development of UV Focal Plane Arrays	277	(3)
Acknowledgements	280	(1)
References	280	(5)
Quaternary InAIGaN-Based UV LEDs
Introduction	285	(4)
Growth and Optical Properties of AlxGa1--xN	289	(7)
Growth and Characterization of Quaternary InxAlyGa1--x--yN for UV Emitters	296	(10)
High--Al--Content p-Type AlxGa1--xN Grown Using an Alternating Gas Flow Technique	306	(4)
InAIGaN-Based UV-LEDs	310	(9)
AlGaN and InAIGaN-based UV-LEDs on SiC	310	(2)
310 nm-band InAlGaN LEDs on Sapphire	312	(2)
350 nm-band high-power InAlGaN QW LEDs on GaN substrates	314	(5)
Conclusions	319	(4)
Acknowledgements	320	(1)
References	320	(3)
Design and Fabrication of GaN High Power Rectifiers
Introduction	323	(1)
Background	324	(12)
Temperature Dependence of Bandgap	324	(1)
Effective Density of States	325	(1)
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration	326	(1)
Incomplete Ionization of Impurity Atoms	327	(1)
Mobility Model	327	(1)
Generation and Recombination	328	(1)
Reverse Breakdown Voltage	329	(4)
On-state Resistance	333	(3)
Edge Termination Design	336	(5)
Field Plate Termination	336	(3)
Junction Termination	339	(2)
Comparison of Schottky and p--n Junction Diodes	341	(1)
Reverse Bias	341	(1)
Forward Bias	342	(1)
High Breakdown Lateral Diodes	342	(4)
Bulk Diode Arrays	346	(3)
Conclusions	349	(2)
References	349	(2)
GaN Negative Differential Resistance Components with Terahertz Operation Capability: From Fundamentals to Devices
Introduction	351	(1)
Principles of Operation of NDR Devices	352	(3)
Transport Properties of GaN	355	(7)
GaN NDR Device Simulation	362	(11)
Other NDR Device Approaches and Fundamental Studies	373	(5)
Fabrication	378	(4)
Testing	382	(2)
Summary	384	(3)
Acknowledgements	384	(1)
References	385	(2)
Ferromagnetism in GaN and Related Materials
Introduction	387	(1)
Potential Semiconductor Materials for Spintronics	388	(2)
Mechanisms of Ferromagnetism	390	(2)
(Ga,Mn)N	392	(21)
AIN	413	(7)
AlGaN	420	(4)
Potential Device Applications	424	(4)
Issues to be Resolved	428	(6)
Acknowledgements	429	(1)
References	429	(5)
Phonons and Electron--Phonon Interactions in III-Nitride Bulk and Dimensionally Confined Semiconductors and Their Device Implications
Phonon Modes in Wurtzite Nitride Structures	434	(3)
Dielectric Continuum and Loudon's Model	437	(2)
Ternary Alloys	439	(1)
Electron--Longitudinal-optical-phonon Scattering	440	(3)
Extension of Model to Low-dimensional Wurtzite Structures	443	(1)
Phonon Line Broadening Associated with the Decay of Phonons due to Scattering by Point Defects	444	(2)
Transmittance in the Wurtzite Nitrides	446	(1)
Applications in Semiconductor Lasers	447	(1)
Quantum Dot Structures	448	(7)
Acknowledgements	450	(1)
References	450	(5)
Phase Separation and Ordering in Cubic Ternary and Quaternary Nitride Alloys
Introduction	455	(2)
Theoretical Models	457	(7)
Generalized Quasi-chemical Approach for Ternary Alloys	457	(1)
Ising-like Hamiltonian for Ternary Alloys	458	(3)
Monte Carlo Method	461	(1)
Ternary Alloys	461	(1)
Quaternary Alloys	461	(1)
Total Energy Calculations	462	(1)
Method to Identify Order in the MC Sample	462	(2)
Phase Separation in the Ternary Alloys	464	(5)
BGaN and BAIN	465	(2)
AIGaN, InGaN, and InAIN	467	(2)
Ordered Phases in InGaN and AIGaN Alloys	469	(5)
First Principles Calculations	470	(1)
The {Jf,l} and the Ground State	470	(2)
The Thermodynamics via Monte Carlo Simulations	472	(2)
Thermodynamics of the Quaternary AlGalnN Alloys	474	(1)
Summary	475	(4)
Acknowledgements	476	(1)
References	476	(3)
Electronic Properties of Intrinsic and Heavily Doped 3C--, nH--SiC (n = 2, 4, 6) and III-N (III = B, Al, Ga, In)
Introduction	479	(4)
Crystalline Structures	483	(2)
Electronic Properties of SiC	485	(16)
Electronic Band Structure	486	(8)
Effective Electron and Hole Masses	494	(7)
Doping Induced Bandgap Narrowing in SiC	501	(17)
Metal--Non-metal Transition	507	(1)
The Original Mott Model (Model No. 1)	507	(1)
The Mott--Hubbard Model (Model No. 2)	508	(1)
The Total Energy Approach (Model No. 3)	509	(2)
Reduced and Optical Bandgap Energies	511	(7)
Electronic Properties of III-N	518	(15)
Electronic Band Structure	519	(5)
Effective Electron and Hole Masses	524	(9)
Doping Induced Bandgap Narrowing in III-N	533	(15)
Metal--Non-metal Transition	534	(5)
Reduced and Optical Bandgap Energies	539	(9)
Summary	548	(13)
Acknowledgements	549	(1)
References	549	(12)
Index	561