Plant Biology

by Graham, Linda E.; Graham, Jim M.; Wilcox, Lee W.

• ISBN13: 9780131469068
• ISBN10: 0131469061
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-03-15
• Publisher: Benjamin Cummings

Summary

Key Benefit:For non-majors and mixed-majors introductory botany (plant biology) courses. Plant Biologyfocuses readers on the function of plants and the role they play in our world. With evolved content and a new organization, the authors emphasize the scientific method to help readers develop the critical thinking skills they need to make sound decisions throughout life. Together, the emphasis on how plants work and the development of critical-thinking skills support the authorsrs" goal of fostering scientific literacy. Key Topics:Introduction to Plant Biology, Plants and People, Molecules and Plants, Cells, Photosynthesis and Respiration, DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis, Cell Division: Mitosis and Cytokinesis, Plant Structure, Growth, and Development, Stems, Roots, Leaves, Plant Behavior, Reproduction, Meiosis, and Life Cycles, Genetics and the Laws of Inheritance, Genetic Engineering, Biological Evolution, Naming and Organizing Microbes, Viruses, and Plants, Prokaryotes and the Origin of Life, Protists and the Origin of Eukaryotic Cells, Fungi and Lichens, Seedless Plants: Bryophytes, Lycophytes, and Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and the Origin of Seeds, Angiosperm Reproduction: Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds, Flowering Plant and Animal Coevolution: Pollination and Seed Dispersal, Principles of Ecology and the Biosphere, Arid Terrestrial Ecosystems, Moist Terrestrial Ecosystems, Aquatic Ecosystems, Human Impacts and Sustainability Market Description:For those interested in learning the basics of plant biology

Table of Contents

Preface	xxvii
Part 1 Introduction
Introduction to Plant Biology	2	(16)
What are plants?	4	(1)
Bacteria, fungi, and algae are important to plant life	5	(2)
Plants and other organisms have scientific names	7	(1)
Scientific methods are used to learn about nature	8	(2)
Science has an error-correction capacity	9	(1)
The process of science may be inductive or deductive	10	(1)
Plants and associated organisms play essential roles in maintaining Earth's environment	10	(5)
Plants, algae, fungi, and bacteria help maintain Earth's atmospheric chemistry and climate	10	(1)
Plants benefit from close associations with other organisms	11	(1)
Food webs	11	(1)
Beneficial symbioses	11	(3)
Coevolution	14	(1)
Plants, protists, fungi, and bacteria are important in human affairs	15	(3)
Essay 1.1 Devilish Dodder	4	(8)
Essay 1.2 Global Warming: Too Much of a Good Thing	12	(4)
Highlights	16	(1)
Review Questions	17	(1)
Applying Concepts	17	(1)
Plants and People	18	(14)
Ethnobotany and economic botany focus on human uses of plants	20	(1)
The origin of agriculture was key to development of civilizations	20	(6)
How can we know something about the origins of agriculture?	20	(2)
When and why did agriculture originate?	22	(1)
Where were plants first domesticated?	22	(1)
Ecological adaptations are responsible for the useful features of cereals and legumes	23	(2)
How were cereals and legumes domesticated?	25	(1)
Food plant genetic resources and traditional agricultural knowledge need to be preserved	26	(3)
Natural plant products are useful to humans as medicine and in other ways	29	(3)
Plants are sources of medicine and dietary supplements	29	(1)
Plants are sources of psychoactive drugs	29
Essay 2.1 Ethnobotany: Seeds of Culture	21	(7)
Essay 2.2 Chocolate: It Does a Body---and the Ecosystem---Good!	28	(3)
Highlights	31	(1)
Review Questions	31	(1)
Applying Concepts	31	(1)
Part 2 Plant Structure and Function
Molecules of Life	32	(26)
All physical matter is made up of elements composed of distinct atoms	34	(2)
Plants contain and require more of some elements than others	34	(1)
Atoms are made up of three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons	34	(1)
Every element has an atomic number and a mass number	35	(1)
Several types of bonds link atoms to form molecules	36	(2)
Ionic bonds form when atoms gain or lose electrons	36	(1)
Acids and bases contain ionic bonds	36	(1)
In covalent bonds, two or more atoms share electrons	37	(1)
Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between molecules	37	(1)
Water has unique properties because it forms hydrogen bonds	38	(1)
Four types of primary compounds are the molecules of life	38	(14)
Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and cellulose	39	(2)
Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids	41	(2)
Proteins are large molecules composed of amino acids	43	(3)
Storage proteins are important in human nutrition	46	(1)
Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts	47	(2)
Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA are composed of nucleotides	49	(3)
Plants produce a wide range of secondary compounds	52	(6)
Terpenes and terpenoids repel insects	52	(1)
Phenolics have antiseptic properties and flavonoids color many flowers and fruits	52	(2)
Many alkaloids are widely used as medicines	54
Essay 3.1 Molecules: Keys to the Search for Extraterrestrial Life	40	(16)
Highlights	56	(1)
Review Questions	56	(1)
Applying Concepts	56	(2)
Cells	58	(22)
Organisms are composed of one to many microscopic cells	60	(1)
Microscopes are used to study cells	60	(3)
Light microscopes use glass lenses and visible light to enlarge images	60	(1)
Electron microscopes use magnetic lenses to focus beams of electrons	61	(2)
Two major types of cells are eukaryotic cells and prokakryotic cells	63	(10)
Cell membranes, cytoplasm, and ribosomes occur in all cells	63	(1)
The cell membrane functions in communication and transport of materials	63	(1)
Some cell-membrane proteins perceive environmental information	64	(1)
Some cell-membrane proteins transport materials into or out of cells	64	(1)
Selective membrane permeability is the basis for osmosis	65	(1)
Some plants are adapted to salty environments	66	(1)
Endocytosis and exocytosis also transport materials across cell membranes	67	(1)
Eukaryotic cells share some features that prokaryotes lack	67	(1)
Nuclei contain most of the eukaryotic cell's genetic information	67	(1)
The endomembrane system constructs and transports cell materials	67	(2)
The endoplasmic reticulum	69	(1)
The Golgi apparatus	70	(1)
The cytoskeleton and associated motor proteins generate cell movements	70	(1)
Cytoskeletal components	71	(1)
Types of motor proteins	71	(1)
Flagella	71	(1)
Mitochondria are major cellular sites of chemical energy transformations	72	(1)
Peroxisomes contain protective enzymes	72	(1)
Plant cells have the general features of eukaryotic cells and additional components	73	(7)
Cellulose-rich plant cell walls provide support and protection	73	(1)
Cellulose	73	(1)
Noncellulose components of plant cell walls	73	(1)
Primary and secondary plant cell walls	73	(1)
Plant cells are connected by plasmodesmata	74	(1)
Plastids are sites of photosynthesis and other functions	75	(2)
Starch is formed in plastids of plants and green algae	77	(1)
Chromoplasts are non-green, pigmented plastids of flowers and fruits	77	(1)
Vacuoles play several important roles in plant cells	77
Essay 4.1 Plant ``Psi''chological Stress	68	(10)
Essay 4.2 Heavy-Metal Plants	78	(1)
Highlights	78	(1)
Review Questions	79	(1)
Applying Concepts	79	(1)
Photosynthesis and Respiration	80	(24)
Photosynthesis and respiration are the processes by which living organisms capture solar energy and release it to sustain life on Earth	82	(1)
Metabolism includes many kinds of chemical reactions organized into series called pathways	82	(3)
Chemical reactions may be exergonic or endergonic	83	(1)
Oxidation-reduction reactions are highly important in cell metabolism	83	(1)
In metabolism, chemical reactions are organized into pathways	84	(1)
Photosynthesis harvests solar energy to sustain life on Earth	85	(11)
Photosynthesis changed the early Earth so that multicellular life became possible	85	(1)
Photosynthesis provides the food and fuel that power life on Earth	86	(1)
The interaction between light and pigments is crucial to solar energy capture	86	(1)
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of algae and plants	87	(2)
Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy stored in sugars	89	(1)
The light reactions capture solar energy	89	(3)
Chemiosmosis and photophosphorylation produce ATP molecules in the chloroplast	92	(1)
The carbon-fixation reactions reduce carbon dioxide to simple sugars	92	(2)
Photorespiration makes the pathway inefficient	94	(1)
C4 plants and CAM plants have mechanisms to reduce photorespiration	95	(1)
C4 plants reduce photorespiration by preconcentrating CO2	95	(1)
CAM plants reduce photorespiration by fixing CO2 at night	95	(1)
Respiration and fermentation release energy for cellular metabolism	96	(8)
Respiration occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of cells	97	(1)
Glycolysis is the splitting of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate	97	(1)
Fermentation extracts energy from organic compounds without oxygen	98	(1)
Pyruvate is split into CO2 and an acetyl group attached to coenzyme A	98	(1)
In the Krebs cycle, the acetyl group is broken into two carbon dioxide molecules	99	(1)
The electron transport chain generates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane	100	(1)
Chemiosmosis and oxidative phosphorylation generate ATP in the mitochondrion	100
Essay 5.1 The Botany of Beer	99	(3)
Highlights	102	(1)
Review Questions	103	(1)
Applying Concepts	103	(1)
DNA and RNA	104	(16)
DNA is a long molecule composed of subunits called nucleotides	106	(1)
DNA contains two nucleotide strands that wind about each other in a double helix	106	(2)
DNA replicates by separating its two strands and synthesizing two new complementary strands	108	(1)
Stability of genetic information depends on efficient mechanisms for DNA	109	(1)
Genetic information is coded in DNA as groups of three nucleotides	110	(1)
Protein synthesis involves three forms of RNA in the cytoplasm	110	(5)
Instructions for protein synthesis is coded in DNA are first transcribed into a coded mRNA molecule	111	(1)
The coded information in mRNA is translated into a protein with the aid of ribosomes and tRNAs	112	(3)
Differences in DNA account for differences among organisms and even among individuals	115	(5)
Essay 6.1 Molecular Detectives: DNA Fingerprinting Solves Crimes	117	(1)
Highlights	118	(1)
Review Questions	118	(1)
Applying Concepts	119	(1)
Cell Division	120	(14)
Cell division and the cell cycle	122	(1)
Division in prokaryotes, mitochondria, and plastids occurs by binary fission	122	(2)
Eukaryotic cells have separate processes of nuclear and cytoplasmic division	124	(10)
Preparation for cell division occurs during interphase	125	(1)
The G1 phase is a period of intense synthesis of molecules and structures	125	(1)
DNA replication occurs during the S phase	125	(1)
The G2 phase completes preparations for cell division	126	(1)
Mitosis consists of four phases	126	(1)
In prophase, chromosomes condense until they appear as sister chromatids	126	(1)
In metaphase, chromosomes align on the equator of the mitotic spindle	127	(1)
Sister chromatids separate in anaphase	128	(1)
In telophase, chromosomes become indistinct	128	(1)
In cytokinesis, cytoplasm is divided between daughter cells	129	(1)
Essay 7.1 When to Stick and When to Split: Mechanisms of Chromosome Cohesion and Separation	130	(2)
Highlights	132	(1)
Review Questions	133	(1)
Applying Concepts	133	(1)
Plant Structure, Growth, and Development	134	(16)
Plant structural variation is ecologically and economically important	136	(1)
Plant bodies are composed of organs, tissues, and many types of cells	136	(8)
Shoots, roots, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds are plant organs or organ systems	136	(1)
Plant organs are composed of tissues whose cells are linked by plasmodesmata	137	(2)
Plants grow by production of new tissues and cell enlargement	139	(1)
Primary apical meristems produce primary tissues	139	(1)
Secondary meristems produce wood and bark	140	(1)
Plants also grow by cell expansion	140	(1)
Plant tissues are composed of one to several cell types	141	(1)
Specialized cells arise by the process of differentiation	142	(2)
Plants develop from single cells or small pieces	144	(6)
Plants can develop from zygotes, spores, or excised pieces	144	(4)
Plant bodies have polarity, radial symmetry, and indeterminate growth	148
Essay 8.1 Supermarket Botany	138	(11)
Highlights	149	(1)
Review Questions	149	(1)
Applying Concepts	149	(1)
Stems and Materials Transport	150	(20)
Stems are fundamental plant organs having multiple functions	152	(1)
The structure of conducting tissues helps explain their functions	152	(10)
Conducting tissues in plants occur in vascular bundles	152	(1)
Living phloem tissues conduct organic compounds in a watery solution	152	(2)
Phloem conducts sugars from their source to the sites of utilization	154	(1)
Dead xylem tissues are structured to facilitate water transport	155	(1)
Water and solutes move through stems as the result of transpiration	155	(2)
Wood and bark arise by the activity of secondary meristems	157	(1)
The vascular cambium produces wood and inner bark	157	(3)
The cork cambium produces a protective covering for older woody stems	160	(1)
Some plants can grow tall without extensive wood	161	(1)
Humans use stems in many ways	162	(8)
Paper	162	(1)
Cork	163	(1)
Bamboo	164	(1)
Wood	164
Essay 9.1 Weird and Wonderful Stems	156	(9)
Essay 9.2 Growth Rings: Mirrors into the Past	165	(4)
Highlights	169	(1)
Review Questions	169	(1)
Applying Concepts	169	(1)
Roots and Plant Nutrition	170	(20)
Roots play a variety of roles in plants	172	(4)
Roots anchor plants and absorb water and minerals	172	(1)
Some roots are useful as human food because they store carbohydrates	172	(1)
Roots are important sites of hormone and secondary compound production in plants	172	(1)
The roots of some plants help support stems	173	(2)
Pneumatophores help provide oxygen to underwater roots of some mangroves	175	(1)
Some plants produce other types of specialized roots	175	(1)
Taproots, fibrous roots, and feeder roots are major types of underground root systems	176	(1)
Root structure and function are intimately related	177	(9)
External root structures include branch roots, root hairs, and the root tip	177	(1)
An internal view of root tissues reveals how root cells grow and specialize	178	(1)
The root apical meristem produces primary tissues	179	(1)
Root cells enlarge and begin to specialize in the zone of elongation	179	(1)
Specialized cells and tissues are present above the zone of maturation	179	(3)
Root mineral absorption is selective and requires energy	182	(1)
Root hairs and endodermal cells are sites of selective absorption	182	(2)
Plant roots require organic food and oxygen and produce carbon dioxide	184	(2)
Plant roots are associated with beneficial microbes	186	(4)
Essay 10.1 The Root of the Matter: Human Uses of Roots	174	(11)
Essay 10.2 Food for Thought: Plant Mineral Nutrition	185	(2)
Highlights	187	(1)
Review Questions	188	(1)
Applying Concepts	189	(1)
Leaves	190	(20)
As photosynthetic organs, leaves occur in a vast range of forms	192	(2)
Most of the variation in leaves is in the form of the blade	192	(1)
Leaves are arranged in distinct patterns on stems	192	(2)
The major tissues of leaves are epidermis, mesophyll, xylem, and phloem	194	(5)
The epidermis provides structural support and retards water loss	195	(2)
Mesophyll is the photosynthetic tissue of leaves	197	(1)
Xylem and phloem are the conducting tissues of leaf veins	198	(1)
Plants lose large quantities of water through transpiration	199	(1)
Stomatal movements control transpiration	199	(1)
Environmental factors can affect stomatal movements	199	(1)
The cohesion-tension theory explains movement of water through plants	200	(2)
Senescence and leaf fall are a normal part of plant development	202	(1)
Autumn leaf abscission is preceded by a period of senescence	202	(1)
Leaf abscission is preceded by formation of an abscission zone	202	(1)
Leaves perform many functions in addition to photosynthesis	203	(2)
Some leaves are specialized for water or food storage	203	(1)
Leaves are modified for defense in some plants	204	(1)
Leaves of some plants capture animal prey	204	(1)
Humans use leaves in many ways	205	(5)
Essay 11.1 Plant Leaves Track CO2 Levels in the Atmosphere	201	(7)
Highlights	208	(1)
Review Questions	208	(1)
Applying Concepts	209	(1)
Plant Behavior	210	(16)
Plants sense and respond to external and internal signals	212	(1)
Hormones regulate plant growth and development	213	(5)
There are several types of plant hormones	213	(1)
Auxins	213	(1)
Cytokinins	213	(2)
Ethylene	215	(1)
Gibberellins	216	(1)
Several plant hormones play protective roles	217	(1)
Plants use pigment-containing molecules to sense their light environments	218	(3)
Phytochrome controls seed and spore germination	219	(1)
Phytochrome helps control the timing of flowering and dormancy	220	(1)
Plant shoots can sense shading and grow into the light	221	(1)
Plants respond to gravity and touch	221	(2)
Plants can respond to flooding, heat, drought, and cold stress	223	(1)
Plants can defend themselves against attack	223	(3)
Essay 12.1 Aspen Aspirin	218	(6)
Highlights	224	(1)
Review Questions	225	(1)
Applying Concepts	225	(1)
Part 3 Plant Reproduction, Genetics, and Evolution
Reproduction, Meiosis, and Life Cycles	226	(18)
Sexual and asexual reproduction confer different advantages	228	(4)
Sexual reproduction accelerates adaptation	228	(1)
Asexual reproduction can occur rapidly	229	(1)
Many organisms that reproduce only asexually evolved from sexually reproducing ancestors	229	(2)
Many organisms reproduce by both asexual and sexual means	231	(1)
Meiosis is essential to sexual reproduction	232	(2)
Meiosis prevents buildup of chromosomes as the result of sexual reproduction over many generations	232	(2)
Meiosis contributes to genetic variability	234	(1)
Meiosis resembles mitosis in some respects, but differs in important ways	234	(3)
Meiosis follows DNA replication and uses a spindle apparatus, as does mitosis	234	(1)
Homologous chromosome pair, then separate during meiosis I	234	(3)
Chromatids are separated during meiosis II	237	(1)
Life cycles link one generation to the next	237	(7)
Gametic life cycles are typical of animals and some algae	237	(2)
Zygotic life cycles are common among protists	239	(1)
Sporic life cycles are characteristic of land plants and some algae	240
Essay 13.1 The Perfect Date	233	(5)
Essay 13.2 The Guardian Spirit	238	(4)
Highlights	242	(1)
Review Questions	243	(1)
Applying Concepts	243	(1)
Genetics and the Laws of Inheritance	244	(20)
Gregor Mendel's experiments with garden peas revealed the pattern of inheritance of genetic traits	246	(4)
Early hypotheses assumed hereditary material blended in the offspring	246	(1)
Mendel's use of garden peas had many advantages	246	(1)
Mendel's experiments focused on seven distinct traits in peas	247	(1)
The F1 generations revealed dominant and recessive traits	248	(1)
The F2 generations had dominant and recessive forms for each trait	249	(1)
Mendel's model of the pattern of inheritance	249	(1)
The testcross revealed the true nature of dominant traits	250	(1)
Mendel's model in terms of genes, alleles, and chromosomes	250	(3)
Variations on Mendelian genetics	253	(2)
In incomplete dominance, the heterozygote has an intermediate phenotype	253	(1)
In pleiotropy, a single gene affects several traits	253	(1)
In polygenic inheritance, several genes combine to affect a single trait	253	(1)
The environment can alter the expression of the phenotype	254	(1)
Genes and chromosomes	255	(9)
In sweet pea, the genes for flower color and pollen shape are on the same chromosome	255	(1)
Genetic maps show the order and position of genes on chromosome	255	(1)
In a dihybrid cross, genes segregate independently if they are on separate chromosomes	256	(1)
Two or more genes interact to produce a trait in epistasis	257	(1)
In some plants, genes located on sex chromosomes determine separate male and female organisms	258
Essay 14.1 Pseudoscience and the Lysenko Affair	252	(8)
Essay 14.2 Hybrid Corn and Hybrid Orchids	260	(1)
Highlights	261	(1)
Review Questions	262	(1)
Applying Concepts	262	(2)
Genetics Engineering	264	(14)
What is genetic engineering?	266	(1)
Genetic engineers use tools that are common in nature	266	(1)
Some genetic engineering tools are derived from bacteria and viruses	266	(1)
Plants contribute other molecular tools	267	(1)
Plant genetic engineering resembles crop breeding but is faster and more versatile	267	(3)
Humans have long altered the genetics of domesticated plants and animals	267	(2)
Genetic engineering overcomes some drawbacks of traditional breeding methods	269	(1)
Bacteria can be genetically engineered to produce useful materials	270	(3)
Restriction enzymes are used to prepare DNA and vectors for cloning	270	(1)
Foreign DNA is ``glued'' into the vector	270	(2)
Modified vectors are incorporated into bacterial cells, which are then grown to large populations	272	(1)
Plants can be genetically engineered	273	(1)
Genetic engineering has produced valued new forms of crops	273	(1)
The roots of some GM crops can more effectively obtain soil phosphate	273	(1)
Plants can be genetically modified to produce new types of starch	274	(1)
GM crops can produce antibody and vaccine proteins for use in human medicine	274	(1)
Genetically engineered crops pose some concerns	274	(4)
Will genetic engineering help solve world food sufficiency problems?	274	(1)
Should foods containing genetically modified crop products be labeled?	275	(1)
Might GM crops have harmful environmental effects?	275	(1)
Evolution of resistance to pest control measures might offset the value of some GM crops	275	(1)
GM crops might have harmful effects on nonpest species	275	(1)
GM crops might poison the natural enemies of crop pests	275	(1)
GM crop plants might interbreed with wild relatives to form ``superweeds''	275	(1)
GM crops pose other environmental concerns	276
Essay 15.1 PCR: The Gene Copier	268	(8)
Highlights	276	(1)
Review Questions	277	(1)
Applying Concepts	277	(1)
Biological Evolution	278	(20)
Pre-Darwinian science held that species were unchanging	280	(1)
Some early biologists proposed that species could evolve	280	(1)
During the voyage of the Beagle, Darwin made observations that revolutionized biology	280	(1)
Over the next two decades, Darwin developed his theory of evolution by natural selection	281	(2)
The theory of evolution by natural selection can be summarized as a series of observations and conclusions	283	(1)
The synthetic theory of evolution combines Darwinism with genetics and molecular biology	283	(1)
Many areas of science provide evidence for evolution	284	(3)
Artificial selection demonstrates that species can be modified	284	(1)
Comparative anatomy reveals many evolutionary relationships	284	(1)
Changes in proteins and DNA trace evolutionary changes	285	(1)
Fossils provide a record of large-scale evolutionary changes	286	(1)
Evolution occurs when forces change allele frequencies in the gene pool of a population	287	(4)
Mutation provides new variation to a gene pool	288	(1)
Nonrandom mating alters the frequency of alleles	289	(1)
In small populations, genetic drift can cause alleles to be lost	289	(1)
Migration causes alleles to flow into or out of a population	289	(1)
Through natural selection, allele frequencies change such that populations become better adapted to their environment	290	(1)
Directional selection	290	(1)
Stabilizing selection	290	(1)
Disruptive selection	290	(1)
New species originate through the development of reproductive isolation	291	(7)
The concept of species is based on genetic isolation	291	(1)
Allopatric speciation requires geographic isolation	292	(1)
Sympatric speciation can occur when polyploidy arises in plants	293	(1)
Microbial species can evolve in the lab	293	(3)
Essay 16.1 Major Beneficial Gene Changes Can Separate Species	296	(1)
Highlights	296	(1)
Review Questions	297	(1)
Applying Concepts	297	(1)
Part 4 Diversity of Plants, Prokaryotes, Protists, and Fungi
Naming and Organizing Plants and Microbes	298	(16)
Scientific names originated with Linnaeus, the father of biological taxonomy and systematics	300	(3)
Each kind of organism has a unique scientific name	300	(1)
Scientific names are structured to provide useful information	300	(1)
There is a correct way to write scientific names	300	(2)
Plant names signify subspecies, varieties, or cultivars	302	(1)
Hybrids have distinctive scientific names	302	(1)
Naming new plants must follow an established procedure	303	(1)
Identifying and archiving plant specimens	303	(4)
Plant collections can be stored as herbarium specimens	303	(3)
Resources for identifying plant include identification keys	306	(1)
Plants and other organisms are classified according to their relationships	307	(7)
Species can be grouped into species complexes, genera, families, orders, classes, phyla, and domains	310	(1)
Plant and microbe classifications change as new discoveries are made	311
Essay 17.1 Viruses---Extreme Minimalists	301	(5)
Essay 17.2 Botanical Gardens: Science and Art All in One!	306	(6)
Highlights	312	(1)
Review Questions	312	(1)
Applying Concepts	313	(1)
Prokaryotes and the Origin of Life on Earth	314	(20)
What is life and why does it occur on Earth?	316	(3)
The Earth's position in space is important to life	318	(1)
Early life changed Earth's atmospheric composition, fostering modern life	318	(1)
When did the Earth form, and when did life first appear?	319	(1)
A period of bombardment preceded the establishment of life	319	(1)
How did life originate?	320	(2)
The chemical-biological theory explains the origin of life as a series of stages	320	(1)
Organic compounds can be formed from inorganic molecules	320	(1)
Macromolecules can form from simple organic compounds	321	(1)
Macromolecules in water can form cell-like structures	321	(1)
Bacteria and Archaea are Earth's smallest, simplest life-forms	322	(6)
Prokaryote bodies are smaller and simpler than those of eukaryotes	322	(1)
Prokaryotic cells are relatively simple in structure	322	(1)
Prokaryotic DNA	322	(1)
Prokaryotic enzymes	323	(1)
Other cell components	323	(1)
Some prokaryotes can swim or glide	324	(1)
Slimy polysaccharides often coat prokaryote surfaces	324	(1)
Prokaryote cell walls differ in structure and chemistry	325	(1)
Peptidoglycan forms part of bacterial cell walls	325	(1)
The Gram stain is useful in describing bacteria and predicting responses to antibiotics	325	(1)
Prokaryotes reproduce primarily by binary fission	326	(1)
Many prokaryotes survive harsh conditions as tough spores	326	(1)
Prokaryotes lack sex, but can exchange DNA	327	(1)
Prokaryotic diversity is important in nature and human affairs	328	(6)
Proteobacteria are related to eukaryotic mitochondria	329	(1)
Cyanobacteria are related to eukaryotic plastids	329	(1)
Gram-positive bacteria include important disease agents and antibiotic producers	329	(1)
Prokaryotic nutrition is ecologically important	329	(1)
Prokaryotes have useful applications in human affairs	330	(1)
Agricultural applications	330	(1)
Industrial applications	331	(1)
Environmental remediation and monitoring	331
Essay 18.1 Did Life Evolve on Mars?	317	(14)
Highlights	331	(1)
Review Questions	332	(1)
Applying Concepts	333	(1)
Protists and the Origin of Eukaryotic Cells	334	(24)
What are protists and where do they occur?	336	(2)
How can protists be distinguished from plants, fungi, and animals?	336	(1)
Microscopes must be used to observe most protists	337	(1)
Protists are common and numerous in aquatic and moist habitats	337	(1)
Microscopic protists move in several ways	337	(1)
Protists include diverse groups whose relationships are not completely known	338	(7)
Algal diversity reflects the occurrence of key evolutionary events	345	(3)
Mitochondria are derived from endosymbiotic proteobacteria	346	(1)
Primary plastids originated from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria	347	(1)
Protist nutritional variation explains diverse ecological roles	348	(1)
Structural and reproductive adaptations aid in protist survival	349	(5)
Cell coverings	349	(1)
Organic food storage	350	(1)
Asexual reproduction	350	(1)
Sexual reproduction	350	(4)
Algae have useful biotechnological applications	354	(4)
Industrial and food products	354	(1)
Water quality improvement systems	355	(1)
Laboratory model systems	355
Essay 19.1 It's Not Easy Being Non-green: Parasitic Algae	340	(3)
Essay 19.2 Killer Algae	343	(13)
Highlights	356	(1)
Review Questions	356	(1)
Applying Concepts	357	(1)
Fungi and Lichens	358	(18)
Fungi are eukaryotes with distinctive cell walls and bodies	360	(1)
Fungal nutrition is absorptive	360	(2)
Major fungal groups differ in reproduction	362	(2)
Sexual spores allow fungi to colonize new habitats	364	(1)
Asexual spores are used to disperse well-adapted genetic types	364	(1)
Fungi live in beneficial associations with most plants	364	(3)
Endophytic fungal partners provide benefits to plants	364	(2)
Mycorrhizae and partnerships between fungi and plant roots	366	(1)
Some heterotrophic plants obtain organic food from fungi	366	(1)
Fungi are relevant to humans in many ways	367	(5)
Fungi function as decomposers	367	(2)
Fungi are useful as foods and in industrial production	369	(1)
Some fungi are poisonous or hallucinogenic	370	(2)
Lichens are partnerships between fungi and photosynthetic microbes	372	(4)
Lichen evolution and diversity	372	(1)
Lichen reproduction and development	372	(1)
Lichen ecology	373	(1)
Human uses of lichens	373
Essay 20.1 Fungal Gold: Mining Truffles	369	(5)
Highlights	374	(1)
Review Questions	374	(1)
Applying Concepts	375	(1)
Seedless Plants	376	(24)
What are plants?	378	(3)
Plants are multicellular autotrophs that are adapted to life on land	378	(1)
Plant diversity is important in global ecology and human affairs	378	(3)
DNA and fossils help trace the history of plants	381	(3)
DNA data reveal relationships of modern plants	381	(1)
Land plants evolved from charophycean green algae	381	(1)
DNA evidence reveals the order in which the modern plant groups appeared	382	(1)
Fossils reveal important events in the early evolutionary history of plants	383	(1)
The origin of land-adapted plants	383	(1)
The rise of vascular plants	383	(1)
Early plant evolution illustrates the concept of descent with modification	384	(2)
The plant sporophyte probably originated by delaying zygote meiosis	384	(1)
Leaves of ferns arose from branched stem systems	384	(2)
Modern seedless plant groups include bryophytes, lycophytes, and pteridophytes	386	(14)
Bryophytes are the earliest-divergent modern land plants	386	(1)
Bryophyte bodies are simpler than those of vascular plants	387	(1)
Bryophytes reproduce by wind-dispersed spores, breakage, or asexual structures	387	(3)
Mosses are diverse, ecologically significant, and economically useful	390	(1)
Lycophytes and pteridophytes are modern phyla of seedless vascular plants	391	(1)
Lycophytes have simple leaves	391	(1)
Most pteridophytes have leaves with branched vascular systems	392	(3)
Lycophyte and pteridophyte reproduction illustrates early steps toward seed evolution	395
Essay 21.1 The Plants that Changed the World	380	(18)
Highlights	398	(1)
Review Questions	399	(1)
Applying Concepts	399	(1)
Gymnosperms, the First Seed Plants	400	(18)
Gymnosperms include four modern groups and diverse extinct forms	402	(1)
Modern gymnosperms are classified into four major groups	402	(1)
Diverse groups of extinct gymnosperms were ecologically significant in the past	402	(1)
Gymnosperms produce ovules and seeds in cones, rather than within fruits	402	(5)
An ovule is an integument-covered megasporangium	403	(2)
Seeds develop from ovules whose egg cells have been fertilized	405	(1)
Ovule evolution illustrates Darwin's concept of descent with modification	405	(2)
Seeds provide ecological advantages to present and past plants	407	(2)
Diversity and utility of modern gymnosperms	409	(9)
Cycads are widely planted, but endangered in the wild	409	(1)
Ginko biloba is the maidenhair tree	410	(2)
Conifers are the most diverse living gymnosperms	412	(2)
Pines illustrate the major features of conifers	414	(1)
Gnetophytes are of evolutionary significance	415
Essay 22.1 Plant Survivors	411	(5)
Highlights	416	(1)
Review Questions	417	(1)
Applying Concepts	417	(1)
Angiosperm Diversity and Reproduction	418	(22)
Flowering plants comprise an enormous number and diversity of species	420	(1)
The parts of flowers are arranged in whorls	421	(6)
Flowers vary greatly in the numbers, positions, and arrangements of parts	423	(1)
Flowers have evolved many different types of inflorescence for pollination	423	(4)
The angiosperm life cycle involves an alternation of generations	427	(2)
Double fertilization produces a zygote and an endosperm	427	(1)
Apomixis produces seeds without fertilization	428	(1)
The development of the embryo and seed follows double fertilization	429	(4)
Plant embryos pass through a number of developmental stages	429	(3)
The mature seed is nutritionally independent of the parent plant	432	(1)
A fruit is a mature ovary containing seeds	433	(2)
Simple fruits are the most common type	433	(2)
Complex fruits develop from multiple pistils or multiple flowers	435	(1)
Seed germination and the formation of the adult plant	435	(5)
Germination requirements are closely linked to the environment	435	(1)
After germination, plants follow various patterns of development	436
Essay 23.1 The ABCs of Floral Organ Development	424	(14)
Highlights	438	(1)
Review Questions	438	(1)
Applying Concepts	439	(1)
Flowering Plant and Animal Coevolution	440	(20)
Coevolutionary interactions between flowering plants and animals are common and important in nature and human affairs	442	(1)
Flowering plant-animal coevolutionary interactions are important in agriculture	442	(1)
Coevolution is important in global ecology	443	(1)
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from one flower to another of the same species	443	(13)
Outbreeding provides greater genetic variability than inbreeding	444	(1)
Animal pollinators offer precision, high-fidelity pollination services	445	(1)
Plant food rewards to animal pollinators include nectar, pollen, and oil	446	(1)
Plants attract pollinators by flower scent, color, shape, and arrangement	446	(2)
Flowers control pollinator access by flower shapes and positions	448	(1)
Animal pollinators can learn to recognize the features of favored flowers	449	(1)
Flowers and pollinators have coordinated traits known as pollination syndromes	449	(1)
Beetles and beetle-pollinated flowers	449	(1)
Bees and bee-pollinated flowers	449	(2)
Nectar-feeding flies, carrion flies, and fly-pollinated flowers	451	(2)
Butterflies, moths, and coevolved flowers	453	(1)
Birds and bird-pollinated flowers	454	(2)
Bats and bat-pollinated flowers	456	(1)
Plants have also coevolved with animals to accomplish seed dispersal	456	(4)
Essay 24.1 Pollination by Wind and Water	445	(13)
Highlights	458	(1)
Review Questions	459	(1)
Applying Concepts	459	(1)
Part 5 Ecology and Plant Adaptations to the Environment
Principles of Ecology and the Biosphere	460	(22)
Ecology focuses on populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes, and the biosphere	462	(1)
Populations show patterns of distribution and age structure, grow and decline, occupy specific niches, and interact with other populations	462	(5)
Plants in a population may be distributed in a random, uniform, or clumped pattern	462	(1)
Age distribution and survivorship curves describe the age structure of populations	462	(1)
Populations show distinct patterns of growth	463	(2)
The ecological niche includes the abiotic factors that determine the area the population occupies	465	(1)
The ecological niche includes interactions between populations of different species	465	(1)
In mutualism, two populations exchange benefits	465	(1)
In parasitism, herbivory, and predation, one population benefits and the other is harmed	465	(1)
In competition, individual organisms have a negative impact on each other	466	(1)
Communities are composed of individuals of many different species	467	(4)
Communities can be characterized by their species diversity	467	(1)
Ecological succession is the change in community composition over time	468	(1)
Primary succession begins on areas not previously occupied by organisms	469	(2)
Secondary succession occurs on areas where a community has been removed	471	(1)
Ecosystem studies focus on trophic structure and energy flow	471	(2)
Organisms may be grouped into functional categories	471	(1)
The flow of energy through a food chain is linear	471	(1)
Only a small fraction of energy passes between trophic levels	472	(1)
Global climatic patterns determine the distribution of biomes	473	(3)
The distribution of biomes is determined primarily by global patterns of atmospheric circulation	473	(3)
Continentality, ocean currents, and mountain ranges also affect the distribution of biomes	476	(1)
Matter moves between biomes and the physical environment in large-scale biogeochemical cycles	476	(6)
Water cycles through the oceans, atmosphere, lands, and organisms	476	(1)
Microorganisms largely control the nitrogen cycle	477	(2)
Carbon dioxide cycles between the atmosphere and the biosphere	479
Essay 25.1 Determining Past Climate and Vegetation from Pollen Data	470	(10)
Highlights	480	(1)
Review Questions	481	(1)
Applying Concepts	481	(1)
Arid Terrestrial Ecosystems	482	(30)
Arid terrestrial ecosystems are diverse	484	(1)
Polar deserts have the most severe climates on Earth	484	(2)
Arctic herb barrens contain few species of plants	484	(1)
Continental Antarctica contains only sparse populations of mosses, lichens, and algae	485	(1)
In the maritime Antarctic, bryophytes and lichens are dominant	486	(1)
Temperate and subtropical deserts are characterized by low annual precipitation	486	(10)
Four physical factors determine the locations of temperate and subtropical deserts	487	(1)
Desert plants have adapted to acquire water	488	(1)
Plants using the deep-water table must put down long roots	488	(1)
A great variety of desert plants use surface water	489	(1)
Desert algae, mosses, and lichens are tolerant of high temperatures	489	(1)
Desert annuals and herbaceous perennials grow when water is available	490	(1)
Deciduous perennials maintain significant aboveground biomass	490	(2)
Desert succulents have a number of adaptive features to survive aridity	492	(1)
Succulents conserve water by a low surface-to-volume ratio and CAM metabolism	492	(1)
Much of the volume of succulents is available for water storage	492	(1)
Cacti are extremely tolerant of high temperatures	493	(1)
Water uptake in desert succulents may be very rapid	493	(1)
Stem succulents have cylindrical, globose, or paddle-like stems	493	(1)
Leaf succulents include the agaves, aloes, and stone plants	493	(2)
Human impacts on deserts include mining, depletion of aquifers, and urban sprawl	495	(1)
Grasslands are temperate areas dominated by grasses	496	(10)
Grasslands are ecologically, evolutionarily, and economically important	496	(1)
Grasslands occupy vast areas of land and support immense populations of animals	496	(1)
Grasslands store vast amounts of organic carbon in their soils	496	(1)
Grasslands support the world's most productive agriculture	496	(1)
Grasslands have had a major impact on the evolution of grazer animals and humans	497	(1)
Climate, fire, and herbivores shape grassland environments	497	(1)
Grassland climate is drier and more extreme than that of most forests	498	(1)
Fire plays an important role in maintaining grasslands	498	(1)
Large animal grazers also influence grassland environments	498	(1)
Grassland plants are adapted to cope with environmental stresses	499	(1)
Dominant grass species vary through the year and by region	499	(1)
Grass plants are adapted for fast growth, high productivity, and resistance to fire and grazing	500	(1)
Grass flowers and fruits are adapted for efficient reproduction	501	(1)
Forbs are diverse grassland plants that are neither grasses, trees, nor shrubs	502	(1)
Grassland trees and shrubs are adapted to survive fire and provide important resources for some grazers	502	(1)
Grassland improvement, restoration, and preservation yield benefits for people	503	(1)
Dry grasslands can degrade into deserts	504	(1)
Mesic grasslands have mostly been transformed into farmlands	504	(2)
Wet grasslands provide valuable ecological services	506	(1)
The chaparral ecosystem has hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters	506	(6)
Evergreen shrubs with sclerophyllous leaves dominate the chaparral	507	(1)
Fire is a major ecological force in the chaparral	508	(1)
Some shrubs require fire to establish new seedlings	508	(1)
Other shrubs require an absence of fire to establish seedlings	508	(1)
Trees in the chaparral are adapted to survive wildfires	508	(1)
Human impact has been severe on Mediterranean scrub ecosystems	509
Essay 26.1 Building Biomes on Mars	486	(13)
Essay 26.2 Restoring Prairies	499	(10)
Highlights	509	(1)
Review Questions	510	(1)
Applying Concepts	511	(1)
Moist Terrestrial Ecosystems	512	(32)
Moist terrestrial ecosystems cover a wide range of climates	514	(1)
Polar and alpine ecosystems have arisen since the retreat of the last glaciation	514	(1)
Tundra can be characterized by the absence of trees	514	(3)
Tundra plants show a number of adaptations in form and function	516	(1)
Tundra plants show a number of reproductive adaptations	516	(1)
Coniferous trees dominate the taiga	517	(1)
Alpine tundra and montane coniferous forest are southern extensions of arctic tundra and taiga	518	(2)
Alpine tundra and arctic tundra have many species in common	518	(1)
Dominant conifer species differ among mountain ranges	518	(1)
Mining, logging, grazing, and recreation affect polar and alpine ecosystems at local and regional scales	519	(1)
Temperate deciduous forests are ecosystems with seasonality and abundant precipitation	520	(9)
Eight genera of trees define the eastern temperate deciduous forest	521	(1)
Plants in the temperate deciduous forest are adapted to cold winters and competition for light	522	(2)
Humans have had a major impact on many features of the eastern temperate deciduous forest	524	(1)
Many exotic species have invaded the temperate deciduous forest	525	(1)
Plant rustling from national forests is becoming a serious problem	526	(1)
Research at Hubbard Brook was undertaken to determine how temperate forest ecosystems function	527	(1)
Acid rain is damaging the eastern temperate deciduous forest	528	(1)
Tropical rain forests have a nonseasonal climate and abundant precipitation	529	(15)
Tropical rain forests have high biotic diversity and important global climate effects	529	(1)
Great age, rapid evolution, and complex structure foster high biodiversity	530	(1)
Tropical rain forests store much of the Earth's carbon	531	(1)
Tropical rain forests play an important role in global water cycling	531	(1)
Tropical forest vegetation is distinctive	531	(1)
Tropical forests are tall, evergreen, and layered	531	(1)
Tropical forests are richer in tree species than other forests	531	(1)
Tropical forests contain plant forms that are rare elsewhere	531	(1)
Tropical rain forests are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth	532	(1)
Warm, moist tropical climates favor lush plant growth	532	(2)
Tropical plants compete for light	534	(1)
Some tropical plants are adapted to drought	534	(1)
Heavy rainfall and high winds can damage tropical plants	534	(1)
Paradoxically, lush rain forests grow on poor soils	534	(1)
Tropical forest soils are low in nutrients and organic materials	534	(1)
Tropical forest mineral nutrients are held within tissues of living organisms	535	(1)
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi help tropical rain forest plants cope with poor soils	535	(1)
Early tropical forest farmers learned to cope with poor soils	535	(1)
Temperate-style agriculture is often difficult to practice in the tropics	536	(1)
Tropical forest plants are adapted to numerous environmental stresses	537	(1)
Canopy trees are well adapted to intercept light, but are vulnerable to fire and forest fragmentation	537	(1)
Tropical tree stem architecture is amazingly diverse	537	(1)
Buttress roots provide structural support	537	(1)
Leaves of tropical trees are surprisingly uniform in shape	538	(1)
Tree reproduction is adapted to forest conditions	539	(1)
Lianas' growth and reproduction reflect their clinging lifestyle	540
Essay 27.1 Native American Uses of Temperate Forest Plants	525	(8)
Essay 27.2 Fascinating Orchids	533	(5)
Essay 27.3 Restoring a Lost Forest	538	(3)
Highlights	541	(1)
Review Questions	542	(1)
Applying Concepts	543	(1)
Aquatic Ecosystems	544	(28)
Aquatic ecosystems are essential to humans	546	(1)
People and wildlife depend on freshwaters and wetlands for many services	546	(1)
Lake ecosystems: seasonal changes, habitats, and primary producers	546	(6)
Lakes contain three major types of habitats and communities	546	(1)
Mineral nutrient availability in temperate lakes varies with seasonal temperature change	547	(1)
Spring	547	(1)
Summer	547	(1)
Fall	547	(1)
Winter	547	(1)
Freshwater algae and plants are adapted to aquatic habitats	548	(1)
Algae	548	(1)
Floating plants	548	(1)
Rooted macrophytes	548	(1)
Human activities have degraded freshwaters	549	(1)
Oligotrophic freshwaters are low in nutrients and productivity but high in species diversity	550	(1)
Eutrophic freshwaters are high in nutrients and productivity but low in species diversity	550	(1)
Phosphorous availability controls growth of freshwater plants, algae, and cyanobacteria	550	(1)
Lake and stream eutrophication can be prevented or reversed	551	(1)
Wetland ecosystems	552	(4)
Common freshwater wetlands include riparian wetlands, deep-water swamps, marshes, acid bogs, and sedge meadows	552	(1)
Wetlands play important roles in global carbon cycling	552	(1)
Wetland plants are adapted in ways that help them overcome stresses of wetland habitats	553	(2)
Humans have destroyed many of the world's wetlands	555	(1)
Wetland delineation, invasive species, and restoration are issues in wetland protection and restoration	555	(1)
Oceans are essential to humans and life on Earth	556	(1)
Oceans cover most of the surface of the Earth	557	(3)
Seawater and freshwater differ in the amount of dissolved substances	557	(1)
Ocean basins contain a varied terrain	558	(1)
Atmospheric circulation and the Coriolis force drive ocean currents	558	(1)
Ocean temperatures vary with depth, season, and latitude	559	(1)
The oceans can be divided into realms	560	(1)
The epipelagic ecosystem contains plankton and nekton communities	560	(3)
Bacterioplankton are the most important group in terms of productivity	561	(1)
Phytoplankton are very diverse in form	561	(1)
Diatoms	561	(1)
Dinoflagellates	561	(1)
Haptophytes	562	(1)
The planktonic food web begins with picoplankton	562	(1)
The sublittoral zone includes kelp forests, seagrass beds, and coral reefs	563	(4)
Kelp forests are dominated by large photosynthetic protists	563	(2)
Seagrasses stabilize soft sandy sediments and provide shelter for many marine animals	565	(1)
Coral reefs are among the most beautiful and diverse ecosystems on Earth	566	(1)
The littoral zone includes estuaries, salt marshes, and mangrove forests	567	(5)
Estuaries have relatively few species of organisms	567	(1)
Salt marshes contain herbs, grasses, and shrubs rooted in soils washed by tides	568	(1)
In mangrove forests the trees grow in shallow seawater	569
Essay 28.1 Jamaican Coral Reefs: Going, Going, . . . Gone	568	(2)
Highlights	570	(1)
Review Questions	570	(1)
Applying Concepts	571	(1)
Human Impacts and Sustainability	572	(17)
Sustainability is the maintenance of humans together with healthy environments	574	(1)
Humans impact the global environment in many ways	574	(6)
How many people can Earth sustain?	575	(1)
Human population growth is correlated with environmental degradation	575	(1)
Global warming is affecting every ecosystem on Earth	576	(1)
Humans impact the global environment in a number of other ways	577	(1)
Acid rain	577	(1)
Depletion of soil fertility and erosion	577	(1)
Pollution of coastal zones	577	(1)
Overfishing	578	(1)
Transformation of ecosystems leads to loss of biodiversity	578	(2)
The concept of sustainability has many different dimensions	580	(9)
Stable human populations are necessary for sustainability	580	(1)
Innovative technologies may improve energy sustainability	580	(1)
Sustainable agriculture reduces erosion, nutrient and organic carbon loss, and chemical use	581	(1)
Sustainable use of ocean resources and restoration of coastal zones are future goals	582	(1)
Sustainability requires maintaining ecosystem services and biodiversity	583	(1)
Biodiversity ``hotspots'' are regions of high endemism	583	(1)
Biomes differ in their vulnerability to extinction	584	(1)
Everyone can contribute to global sustainability	584
Essay 29.1 Fossil Fuel-Free in Iceland	582	(2)
Essay 29.2 Sustainable Use of Neotropical Forests	584	(2)
Highlights	586	(1)
Review Questions	586	(1)
Applying Concepts	587	(2)
Appendix I Metric Systems Conversions	589	(2)
Appendix II Geological Time Scale	591	(2)
Answers	593	(30)
Glossary	623	(16)
Credits	639	(2)
Index	641