Practical Research : Planning and Design

by Leedy, Paul D.; Ormrod, Jeanne E.

• ISBN13: 9780131108950
• ISBN10: 0131108956
• Edition: 8th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-01-01
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

Written in uncommonly engaging, lucid, and elegant prose, this book is an "understand-it-yourself, do-it-yourself" manual designed to help readers understand the fundamental structure of quality research and the methodical process that leads to genuinely significant results. It guides the reader, step-by-step, from the selection of a problem to study, through the process of conducting authentic research, to the preparation of a completed report, with practical suggestions based on a solid theoretical framework and sound pedagogy. This book will show readers two things: 1) that quality research demands planning and design; and, 2) how their own research projects can be executed effectively and professionally.For researchers and research analysts in any discipline.

Table of Contents

Introduction	xxi
Part I The Fundamentals
What Is Research?	1	(11)
What Research Is Not	1	(1)
What Research Is	2	(5)
Discovering the Discipline of Research	7	(2)
Browsing the Periodicals Section of the Library	8	(1)
Finding Journals on the Internet	8	(1)
Practical Application: Evaluating the Research of Others	9	(2)
Checklist: Reflective Questions to Consider When Evaluating Research	9	(1)
Guidelines: Benefiting from Others' Research	10	(1)
For Further Reading	11	(1)
Tools of Research	12	(31)
General Tools of Research	12	(1)
The Library and Its Resources as a Tool of Research	13	(4)
The Library of the Quiet Past	13	(1)
The Library of the Stormy Present	14	(1)
How to Access Information Quickly and Efficiently	14	(3)
The Computer and Its Software as a Tool of Research	17	(3)
Taking Advantage of the Internet	17	(2)
Accessing the Internet	19	(1)
Learning More About the Internet	19	(1)
Practical Application: Using the Internet to Facilitate Communication	20	(1)
Practical Application: Using E-mail	20	(1)
Guidelines: Getting Started on E-mail	21	(1)
Measurement as a Tool of Research	21	(8)
Measuring Insubstantial Phenomena: An Example	22	(2)
Interpretation of the Data	24	(1)
Four Scales of Measurement	25	(2)
Validity and Reliability of Measurement	27	(2)
Statistics as a Tool of Research	29	(2)
The Lure of Statistics	30	(1)
Primary Functions of Statistics	30	(1)
The Human Mind as a Tool of Research	31	(3)
Deductive Logic	31	(1)
Inductive Reasoning	32	(1)
The Scientific Method	33	(1)
Critical Thinking	33	(1)
Collaboration with Others	34	(1)
Language as a Tool of Research	34	(2)
The Value of Knowing Two or More Languages	35	(1)
The Importance of Writing	36	(1)
Practical Application: Communicating Effectively Through Writing	36	(4)
Guidelines: Writing to Communicate	36	(2)
Using Technology Guidelines: Using a Word Processor	38	(2)
Practical Application: Identifying Important Tools in Your Discipline	40	(1)
Checklist: Interviewing an Expert Researcher	40	(1)
Reflections on Significant Research	41	(1)
For Further Reading	41	(2)
Part II Focusing Your Research Efforts
The Problem: The Heart of the Research Process	43	(21)
Finding Research Projects	43	(2)
Practical Application: Identifying and Describing the Research Problem	45	(6)
Guidelines: Finding a Legitimate Problem	45	(2)
Guidelines: Stating the Research Problem	47	(3)
Checklist: Evaluating the Research Problem	50	(1)
Dividing the Research Problem into Subproblems	51	(3)
Subproblems Versus PseudoSubproblems	51	(1)
Characteristics of Subproblems	51	(1)
Identifying Subproblems	52	(2)
Every Problem Needs Further Delineation	54	(3)
Stating the Hypotheses and/or Research Questions	54	(1)
Delimiting the Research	55	(1)
Defining the Terms	55	(1)
Stating the Assumptions	56	(1)
Importance of the Study	57	(1)
Ordering the Topics in a Research Proposal	57	(1)
A Sample Research Proposal	57	(3)
Practical Application: Writing the First Sections of a Proposal	60	(2)
Checklist: Evaluating Your Proposed Research Project	60	(2)
Practical Application: Reappraising a Proposed Research Problem	62	(1)
Guidelines: Fine-Tuning Your Research Problem	62	(1)
For Further Reading	63	(1)
Review of the Related Literature	64	(21)
Understanding the Role of the Review	64	(1)
Sources and Strategies for Locating Related Literature	65	(6)
Using the Library Catalog	65	(1)
Using Indexes, Abstracts, and Other General References	66	(1)
Using Online Databases	67	(2)
Additional Strategies for Zeroing in on Relevant Literature	69	(2)
Practical Application: Conducting a Literature Search	71	(4)
Guidelines: Using Your Library Time Efficiently	72	(3)
Organizing the Information You Have Collected	75	(1)
Creating Computer Databases	75	(1)
Knowing When to Quit	76	(1)
Practical Application: Beginning Your Review of the Related Literature	76	(1)
Evaluating, Organizing, and Synthesizing the Literature	77	(2)
Practical Application: Writing the Section on the Related Literature	79	(2)
Guidelines: Writing a Clear and Cohesive Review	79	(2)
A Sample Research Proposal	81	(3)
For Further Reading	84	(1)
Planning Your Research Project	85	(30)
Planning a General Approach	85	(3)
The Basic Format of All Research	85	(2)
Research Planning Versus Research Methodology	87	(1)
General Criteria for a Research Project	88	(1)
The Nature and Role of Data in Research	88	(5)
What Are Data?	88	(1)
Data Are Transient and Ever Changing	89	(1)
Primary Data Versus Secondary Data	89	(2)
Criteria for the Admissibility of Data	91	(1)
Identifying Appropriate Measurement Instruments	91	(2)
Linking Data and Research Methodology	93	(4)
Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches	94	(3)
Considering the Validity of Your Method	97	(4)
Internal Validity	97	(2)
External Validity	99	(1)
Validity in Qualitative Research	100	(1)
Ethical Issues in Research	101	(3)
Protection from Harm	101	(1)
Informed Consent	101	(1)
Right to Privacy	102	(1)
Honesty with Professional Colleagues	102	(1)
Internal Review Boards	102	(2)
Professional Codes of Ethics	104	(1)
Planning for Data Collection	104	(1)
Practical Application: Choosing a Research Approach	105	(2)
Guidelines: Deciding Whether to Use a Quantitative or Qualitative Approach	105	(2)
Practical Application: Judging the Feasibility of a Research Project	107	(3)
Checklist: Determining Whether a Proposed Research Project Is Realistic and Practical	107	(3)
When You Can't Anticipate Everything in Advance: The Value of a Pilot Study	110	(1)
Practical Application: Establishing Research Criteria and Justifying Your Research Methodology	110	(1)
Practical Application: Developing a Plan of Attack	111	(2)
Using Project Management Software and Electronic Planners	113	(1)
Keeping an Optimistic and Task-Oriented Outlook	113	(1)
For Further Reading	113	(2)
Writing the Research Proposal	115	(18)
Researcher and Architect: Planners in Common	115	(1)
Characteristics of a Proposal	116	(3)
A Proposal Is a Straightforward Document	117	(1)
A Proposal Is Not a Literary Production	117	(1)
A Proposal Is Clearly Organized	117	(2)
Organizing a Research Proposal	119	(2)
Formatting Headings and Subheadings	120	(1)
Practical Application: Writing Your Proposal	121	(5)
Guidelines: Writing the First Draft	121	(3)
Guidelines: Revising Your Proposal	124	(2)
Common Weaknesses in Research Proposals	126	(1)
Practical Application: Strengthening Your Proposal	127	(1)
Checklist: Features Detracting from Proposal Effectiveness	127	(1)
Final Thoughts About Proposal Writing	128	(1)
A Sample Research Proposal	129	(3)
For Further Reading	132	(1)
Part III Qualitative Research Methodologies
Qualitative Research	133	(28)
The Nature of the Research Problem and Planning in Qualitative Research	134	(1)
When to Choose a Qualitative Approach	134	(1)
Qualitative Research Designs	135	(8)
Case Study	135	(2)
Ethnography	137	(2)
Phenomenological Study	139	(1)
Grounded Theory Study	140	(2)
Content Analysis	142	(1)
Collecting Data in Qualitative Research	143	(3)
Sampling	144	(1)
Observations	145	(1)
Interviews	146	(1)
Practical Application: Conducting Interviews in a Qualitative Study	146	(4)
Guidelines: Conducting a Productive Interview	147	(2)
Using Technology to Facilitate Data Collection and Transcription	149	(1)
Organizing and Analyzing the Data from Qualitative Studies	150	(2)
Using Computer Databases to Facilitate Data Organization and Interpretation	151	(1)
Practical Application: Planning a Qualitative Study	152	(2)
Checklist: Planning a Qualitative Study	152	(2)
Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative Research	154	(1)
Practical Application: Evaluating a Qualitative Study	155	(1)
Checklist: Evaluating Qualitative Research Studies	155	(1)
A Sample Dissertation	156	(4)
For Further Reading	160	(1)
Historical Research	161	(18)
Data Sources in Historical Research	162	(4)
Collecting Historical Records	165	(1)
Online Databases About Historical Events	165	(1)
Practical Application: Handling Historical Data Systematically	166	(1)
A Paper-and-Pencil Approach	166	(1)
A Computerized Approach to Collecting and Organizing Your Data	166	(1)
Evaluating and Interpreting Historical Data	167	(1)
External Evidence	167	(1)
Internal Evidence	167	(1)
Considering Historical Time and Historical Space	168	(4)
Historical Time	169	(1)
Historical Space	170	(2)
Psychological or Conceptual Historical Research	172	(1)
The Fascination of Searching for Roots	172	(1)
Practical Application: Historical Research Writing	172	(2)
Checklist: Comparing Two Records of a Significant Event in History	173	(1)
Guidelines: Writing the Historical Research Report	174	(1)
A Sample Dissertation	174	(3)
For Further Reading	177	(2)
Part IV Quantitative Research Methodologies
Descriptive Research	179	(38)
Descriptive Research Designs	179	(6)
Observation Studies	179	(1)
Correlational Research	180	(2)
Developmental Designs	182	(1)
Survey Research	183	(2)
Using Checklists and Rating Scales	185	(2)
Practical Application: Planning and Conducting Interviews	187	(3)
Guidelines: Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study	187	(1)
An Example in International Relations	188	(2)
Practical Application: Constructing and Administering a Questionnaire	190	(7)
Guidelines: Constructing a Questionnaire	190	(2)
Guidelines: Maximizing Your Return Rate for a Mailed Questionnaire	192	(4)
Using Databases, Word Processing, and Mail Merge in Developing Questionnaire Materials	196	(1)
Using Scanners to Facilitate Data Tabulation	197	(1)
Practical Application: Computerizing Data Collection in Descriptive Research	197	(1)
Choosing a Sample in a Descriptive Study	198	(12)
Sampling Designs	199	(7)
Sampling in Surveys of Very Large Populations	206	(1)
Identifying a Sufficient Sample Size	207	(1)
Bias in Research Sampling	208	(2)
Practical Application: Population Analysis for a Descriptive Survey	210	(2)
Checklist: Analyzing a Population	211	(1)
Interpreting Data in Descriptive Research	212	(1)
Some Final Suggestions	212	(1)
A Sample Dissertation	212	(4)
For Further Reading	216	(1)
Experimental and Ex Post Facto Designs	217	(28)
Independent and Dependent Variables	218	(1)
The Importance of Control	219	(3)
Overview of Experimental and Ex Post Facto Designs	222	(1)
Pre-Experimental Designs	223	(2)
Design 1: One-Shot Experimental Case Study	223	(1)
Design 2: One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design	224	(1)
Design 3: Static Group Comparison	224	(1)
True Experimental Designs	225	(2)
Design 4: Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design	225	(1)
Design 5: Solomon Four-Group Design	225	(1)
Design 6: Posttest-Only Control Group Design	226	(1)
Design 7: Within-Subjects Design	226	(1)
Quasi-Experimental Designs	227	(5)
Design 8: Nonrandomized Control Group Pretest-Posttest Design	227	(1)
Design 9: Simple Time-Series Design	228	(1)
Design 10: Control Group, Time-Series Design	228	(1)
Design 11: Reversal Time-Series Design	229	(1)
Design 12: Alternating Treatment Design	229	(1)
Design 13: Multiple Baseline Design	229	(2)
Using Designs 11, 12, and 13 in Single-Subject Studies	231	(1)
Ex Post Facto Designs	232	(1)
Design 14: Simple Ex Post Facto Design	232	(1)
Factorial Designs	233	(5)
Design 15: Randomized Two-Factor Design	233	(1)
Design 16: Combined Experimental and Ex Post Facto Design	233	(5)
Meta-Analyses	238	(1)
Conducting Experiments on the Internet	239	(1)
Testing Your Hypotheses, and Beyond	239	(1)
Practical Application: Identifying Research Designs	239	(1)
A Sample Dissertation	240	(4)
For Further Reading	244	(1)
Statistical Techniques for Analyzing Quantitative Data	245	(37)
Exploring and Organizing a Data Set	245	(6)
Organizing Data to Make Them Easier to Think About and Interpret	248	(1)
Using Computer Spreadsheets to Organize and Analyze Data	249	(2)
Choosing Appropriate Statistics	251	(6)
Functions of Statistics	252	(1)
Considering the Nature of the Data	253	(4)
Descriptive Statistics	257	(10)
Points of Central Tendency	257	(4)
Measures of Variability: Dispersion and Deviation	261	(4)
Measures of Relationship: Correlation	265	(2)
Inferential Statistics	267	(8)
Estimating Population Parameters	267	(3)
Testing Hypotheses	270	(3)
Meta-Analysis	273	(2)
Using Statistical Software Packages	275	(1)
Interpreting the Data	276	(1)
A Sample Dissertation	277	(2)
Practical Application: Analyzing Data in a Quantitative Study	279	(2)
Checklist: Questions to Consider When Choosing a Statistical Procedure	280	(1)
For Further Reading	281	(1)
Part V Preparing the Research Report
Technical Details: Style, Format, and Organization of the Research Report	282	(27)
Getting Started	282	(2)
``Surfing'' the Internet for Writing Assistance	283	(1)
Learn by Looking	283	(1)
Planning a Research Report	284	(4)
Description of the Research Problem	284	(1)
Description of the Method	285	(1)
Presentation of the Data	285	(1)
Interpretation of the Data	286	(1)
Concluding the Report	287	(1)
A Graphic Organizer for the Research Report	288	(1)
Front Matter and End Matter	289	(3)
Preliminary Pages	289	(1)
Endnotes and Footnotes	290	(1)
Reference List	290	(2)
Appendix Content	292	(1)
Organizing the Research Report	292	(3)
Preparing the Report	295	(1)
Style of Prose	295	(1)
Principles of Writing	295	(1)
Practical Application: Developing a Writing Schedule	296	(2)
Guidelines: Developing a Workable Schedule	297	(1)
Practical Application: Critiquing a Research Report	298	(2)
Checklist: Criteria for Critiquing a Research Report	298	(2)
Beyond the Unpublished Research Report: Presenting and Publishing	300	(1)
Paper Presentations	300	(1)
Journal Articles	300	(1)
Sharing Authorship	301	(1)
A Closing Thought	301	(1)
For Further Reading	301	(2)
Appendix Using SPSS
Creating a Data Set	303	(2)
Computing Basic Descriptive Statistics	305	(1)
Computing Inferential Statistics	306	(3)
References	309	(4)
Index	313