The Redbook

by Garner, Bryan A.

• ISBN13: 9780314168917
• ISBN10: 0314168915
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2006-07-18
• Publisher: West Academic

Summary

Provides a comprehensive guide to the essential rules of legal writing. Unlike most style or grammar guides, it focuses on the special needs of legal writers, answering a wide spectrum of questions about grammar and style - both rules as well as exceptions. Also gives detailed, authoritative advice on punctuation, capitalization, spelling, footnotes, and citations, with illustrations in legal context. Designed for law students, law professors, practicing lawyers and judges, the work emphasizes the ways in which legal writing differs from other styles of technical writing. Its how-to sections deal with editing and proofreading, numbers and symbols, and overall document design.

Table of Contents

Part 1: Mechanics
Punctuation	3	(50)
Overview	3	(1)
Commas	3	(1)
Overview	3	(1)
Use commas to separate words or phrases in a series of three or more, and include a comma before the conjunction	3	(1)
Serial comma	3	(1)
Complex phrases	4	(1)
Conjunction repeated	4	(1)
Use a comma to separate two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so)	4	(1)
Defined	4	(1)
Compound predicate distinguished	4	(1)
Choice between comma and semicolon	5	(1)
Comma splice	5	(1)
Use a comma to set off an introductory phrase unless the phrase is short and the verb follows it closely	5	(1)
Types of introductory matter	5	(1)
Exception	5	(1)
Inverted sentence	6	(1)
Direct address	6	(1)
Use commas to set off a nonrestrictive phrase or clause from the rest of the sentence	6	(1)
Defined	6	(1)
Nonrestrictive appositive	6	(1)
Restrictive appositive	6	(1)
Dependent clause	7	(1)
Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives and adverbs---that is, the type that modify their target rather than each other	7	(1)
Definition and tests	7	(1)
Not coordinate	7	(1)
Use a comma to set off a direct quotation of fewer than 50 words, unless the quoted matter is woven into the sentence itself or is introduced by a colon	8	(1)
Placement	8	(1)
Colon as a substitute	8	(1)
In context	8	(1)
Do not place a comma where it interferes with the flow of the sentence	8	(2)
Before the predicate	8	(1)
Phrase after conjunction or relative pronoun	8	(1)
Before parentheses	9	(1)
With nominal abbreviations	9	(1)
Law-firm short form	9	(1)
In a full date that is written month-day-year, put a comma between the day and the year. Unless the date is being used as an adjective, place a comma after the year if the sentence continues. Do not use a comma with the style day-month-year or month-year	10	(1)
American style	10	(1)
Military and British style	10	(1)
No day	10	(1)
Use a comma to break down numbers of 1,000 and more into sets of three digits	10	(1)
Separating by threes	10	(1)
Exceptions	11	(1)
Use a comma (never a semicolon) after the salutation in a personal letter	11	(1)
Informal salutation	11	(1)
Business correspondence	11	(1)
Consider using a comma where one or more words are omitted but understood in context	11	(1)
Understood words	11	(1)
Often optional	11	(1)
Dramatic pause	11	(1)
Semicolons	12	(1)
Overview	12	(1)
Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses that are not joined by a conjunction	12	(1)
Semicolon alone	12	(1)
Exception	12	(1)
Strength of connector	12	(1)
Coordinating conjunction	12	(1)
Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses if the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb or transitional expression rather than a conjunction	13	(1)
Common conjunctive adverbs	13	(1)
Transitional expressions	13	(1)
With comma	13	(1)
Use semicolons instead of commas to separate items in a series if any of the items contains an internal comma or if semicolons would make the sentence clearer	13	(1)
Internal commas	13	(1)
Complexity	14	(1)
To separate citations	14	(1)
Use semicolons to separate items in a series when the items are set off separately, as in a statute or contract	14	(1)
Series lists	14	(1)
Advantages	14	(1)
Use a semicolon to separate an appositive or elaboration at the end of a sentence if the matter is introduced by that is, for example, namely, or a similar device	15	(1)
Appositive matter	15	(1)
No signal	15	(1)
Colons	15	(1)
Overview	15	(1)
Use a colon to join two separate but directly related clauses or phrases	15	(1)
As a pointer	15	(1)
Optional nature of use	16	(1)
Phrase after colon	16	(1)
If what follows the colon is not a complete sentence, do not capitalize the first word; if it is a complete sentence, you may choose to capitalize or not. Whatever style you choose, be consistent	16	(1)
With phrase	16	(1)
With sentence	16	(1)
Use a colon to introduce a quotation, list, or statement	16	(2)
Choice of punctuation	16	(1)
In transcripts	17	(1)
Numbered list	17	(1)
Appositive list	17	(1)
Interrupting colon	17	(1)
Formal quotation	17	(1)
Use a colon after the salutation in a formal letter and after each tag line in a memorandum	18	(1)
Formality	18	(1)
British style	18	(1)
In a memorandum	18	(1)
Use a colon to designate a ratio or analogy	18	(1)
Ratio	18	(1)
Analogy	18	(1)
A colon is also used in several ways in citations and references, including citing the case record	18	(1)
Citations	18	(1)
Miscellaneous uses	19	(1)
Quotation Marks	19	(1)
Overview	19	(1)
Use double quotation marks around a run-in quotation shorter than 50 words or five lines, but not around a block quotation	19	(1)
Generally	19	(1)
Multiple paragraphs	19	(1)
Block quotation	20	(1)
Other set-off matter	20	(1)
Use single quotation marks around a quotation within a marked quotation, and alternate double and single quotation marks for more deeply nested quotations	20	(1)
Awkwardness	20	(1)
In block quotations	20	(1)
Alternative style	20	(1)
Use quotation marks around a word or phrase that is being referred to as a term, or else italicize it	21	(1)
Generally	21	(1)
Italics as alternative	21	(1)
Use quotation marks to mean ``so-called'' or (more negatively) to mean ``so-called-but-not-really''	21	(1)
Odd or informal use	21	(1)
With ``so-called''	21	(1)
With phrasal adjectives	21	(1)
Nicknames	22	(1)
Connoting irony	22	(1)
For sarcasm	22	(1)
Place other punctuation marks correctly in relation to quotation marks: periods and commas go inside; semicolons and colons go outside; and question marks and exclamation marks go inside only if they are part of the quoted matter	22	(2)
With period or comma	22	(1)
With semicolon or colon	22	(1)
With question mark or exclamation mark	23	(1)
Amendment exception	23	(1)
Parentheses	24	(1)
Overview	24	(1)
Use parentheses to set off extraneous matter (such as an explanation, reference, or comment) in a sentence or paragraph	24	(1)
Incidental to sentence	24	(1)
Minimizing effect	24	(1)
Use parentheses to define a quick reference for a longer name	25	(1)
Quick reference	25	(1)
Often not necessary	25	(1)
With quotation marks	25	(1)
Avoiding surplusage	26	(1)
Use parentheses to set off numbers and letters that denote subparts	26	(1)
Generally	26	(1)
In pairs	26	(1)
Special conventions	27	(1)
Exception	27	(1)
Use parentheses in citations as prescribed by the citation manual you follow	27	(1)
Idiosyncrasies	27	(1)
Nesting parentheses	27	(1)
Space between phrases	27	(1)
Punctuate and capitalize parenthetical matter correctly	28	(1)
Terminal punctuation	28	(1)
Capitalization	28	(1)
Brackets	29	(1)
Overview	29	(1)
Bracket an editorial remark or clarification inside a quotation	29	(1)
Editorial comment	29	(1)
[Sic]	29	(1)
No italics for brackets	29	(1)
Use brackets to indicate that part of a word has been omitted or that one or more characters have been changed	30	(1)
Omissions and substitutions	30	(1)
Placement	30	(1)
Overuse	30	(1)
Ellipsis distinguished	30	(1)
In legal writing---as opposed to in other types of writing---do not use brackets as subordinate parentheses inside parenthetical matter	31	(1)
As ``subparentheses''	31	(1)
Rephrasing or paraphrasing	31	(1)
Ellipsis Dots	31	(1)
Overview	31	(1)
Use three ellipsis dots to indicate the omission of one or more words inside a quotation	32	(1)
Midsentence	32	(1)
Paragraph omitted	32	(1)
Use four dots (three ellipsis dots and a period, all identical) to indicate the omission of either (1) the end of a sentence, or (2) matter after a completed sentence when the quotation continues. Use a space before the first dot only if the matter that was omitted was the end of a sentence	32	(1)
Space after last word	32	(1)
No space after last word	33	(1)
Do not use ellipsis dots at the beginning of a quotation or where the quoted matter is worked into the syntax of the main sentence	33	(1)
Start of sentence omitted	33	(1)
In syntax	33	(1)
Keep the ellipses dots standard by using hard spaces and the correct typographic elements	33	(1)
Hard spacing	33	(1)
Asterisks	34	(1)
Ellipsis dots can indicate an unfinished sentence that trails off	34	(1)
Trailing off	34	(1)
Interruption	34	(1)
Em-dashes	34	(1)
Overview	34	(1)
Use an em-dash---or a pair of em-dashes as required by sentence structure---to give matter that is independent of the main sentence more emphasis than parentheses would provide	35	(1)
Setting off words at beginning or end of sentence	35	(1)
In midsentence	35	(1)
With appositive	35	(1)
Use an em-dash---or multiple em-dashes---in several conventions to indicate missing information	35	(1)
In a transcript	35	(1)
In dates. Use an em-dash after the birth year in a biographical reference to indicate that the person is still alive	36	(1)
Expunction	36	(1)
In citations	36	(1)
Same author	36	(1)
To be supplied	36	(1)
En-dashes	36	(1)
Overview	36	(1)
Use an en-dash to designate a span from one value to another, but avoid it to stand for to if the word from is used	37	(1)
To show a range	37	(1)
Not mixed with words	37	(1)
Use an en-dash to join two terms of equal weight	37	(1)
To show equality	37	(1)
To show duality	37	(1)
Follow the established convention within a given jurisdiction to use the en-dash to join sections or chapters and subparts	37	(1)
By convention	37	(1)
To distinguish	38	(1)
Ambiguity	38	(1)
Hyphens	38	(1)
Overview	38	(1)
Hyphenate a phrasal adjective that appears before a noun or pronoun unless it falls within one of several narrow exceptions	38	(3)
Basic rule	38	(1)
Need for clarity	39	(1)
After the noun	39	(1)
``-ly'' adverbs	39	(1)
Proper nouns	39	(1)
Foreign phrases	39	(1)
With multiple first elements	40	(1)
Common legal wordings that contain phrasal adjectives	40	(1)
Use a hyphen with numbers to join two-word spelled-out numbers from 21 to 99 and to write fractions unless one of the numbers is already hyphenated	41	(1)
With numbers	41	(1)
With fractions	41	(1)
An exception	41	(1)
Use a hyphen to break a word between syllables at the end of a line	41	(1)
For line breaks	41	(1)
Between syllables only	42	(1)
Use a hyphen to show that you are referring to a prefix, suffix, letter, or letters in a word; to indicate syllabification; and to show that a word is being spelled out	42	(1)
Part of a word	42	(1)
For syllabication	42	(1)
For spelling	42	(1)
Avoid using a hyphen after a routine prefix---but note the exceptions	42	(1)
Generally	42	(1)
With proper nouns	42	(1)
With certain prefixes	42	(1)
Other exceptions	42	(1)
Periods	43	(1)
Overview	43	(1)
Use a period to end a declaratory statement, an indirect question, or a request	43	(1)
Generally	43	(1)
Matter of interpretation	43	(1)
With exclamation mark	43	(1)
With declaratory sentence	43	(1)
Use periods after letters or numbers in an outline or list	44	(1)
Outline style	44	(1)
Decimal numbering system	44	(1)
Parentheses or period	44	(1)
Use a period after a heading only if the heading is run in with text or is a complete sentence	44	(1)
No period with tags	44	(1)
Period with sentences	44	(1)
Read-in tags	44	(1)
Consistency	44	(1)
Use a period after most abbreviations, but not after most contracted abbreviations	44	(1)
Generally	44	(1)
No periods	45	(1)
Contractions contrasted	45	(1)
ALWD abbreviations	45	(1)
With state names	45	(1)
Avoid periods after letters in an acronym or initialism unless a different style is required by your court's citation rules or preferred by local practice	45	(1)
Modern style	45	(1)
Conventions	45	(1)
Question Marks	46	(1)
Overview	46	(1)
Use a question mark to end an interrogative sentence	46	(1)
Interrogative mood	46	(1)
Interrogative tag	46	(1)
Declaratory form	46	(1)
Multiple endings	46	(1)
Compound sentence	46	(1)
Indirect question	46	(1)
Use a question mark after a questioning word, phrase, or clause contained in the main sentence but separated from it by parentheses or em-dashes	46	(1)
Capitalization	46	(1)
No second terminal punctuation	47	(1)
Use a question mark in parentheses to indicate uncertainty about what immediately precedes it	47	(1)
Dates	47	(1)
Not terminal punctuation	47	(1)
Exclamation Marks	47	(1)
Overview	47	(1)
Use an exclamation mark to end a sentence that expresses a demand, surprise, danger, stress, or some other intense emotion	47	(1)
Generally	47	(1)
In place of question mark	47	(1)
Use an exclamation mark after an exclamatory interjection	47	(1)
Generally	47	(1)
No mark with vocative ``O''	47	(1)
An exclamation mark in parentheses may indicate feigned shock at or mockery of what immediately precedes it	48	(1)
Reference	48	(1)
Editorial protest	48	(1)
Apostrophes	48	(1)
Overview	48	(1)
Use an apostrophe to form the possessive case	49	(1)
Generally	49	(1)
Possessive pronouns	49	(1)
Use an apostrophe to mark a contraction: it represents omitted letters (or numbers in a date)	49	(1)
Generally	49	(1)
In dates	49	(1)
In formal writing	49	(1)
Use an apostrophe (followed by s) to form the plural of letters, single-digit numbers, symbols, and some abbreviations	50	(1)
Incorrect and correct uses	50	(1)
With lowercase abbreviations	50	(1)
Slashes	50	(1)
Overview	50	(1)
Use a slash in a limited number of grammatical conventions; where alternative punctuation is appropriate, avoid the slash	50	(1)
Fractions	50	(1)
Dates	50	(1)
Abbreviations	50	(1)
Alternatives	51	(1)
Double offices	51	(1)
Line breaks	51	(1)
In examples	51	(1)
Bullets	51	(1)
Overview	51	(1)
Use bullets to create visual appeal in setting out important lists	51	(1)
With colon	51	(1)
Plain bullets	52	(1)
Hanging indent	52	(1)
Indent list	52	(1)
Spacing	52	(1)
Avoid bullets if the subparts marked by them will need to be cited	52	(1)
Cannot be cited	52	(1)
Numbers or letters instead	52	(1)
Capitalization	53	(16)
Overview	53	(1)
Use lowercase unless a rule calls for capitalization	53	(1)
Down-style vs. up-style	53	(1)
Quotations exception	53	(1)
Consistency	54	(1)
Capitalize the first word in a sentence	54	(1)
Names	54	(1)
Sentence in a sentence	54	(1)
Lines of poems	54	(1)
Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation if it is a full sentence and formally introduced; do not capitalize if it is a partial sentence, is grammatically woven into the main sentence, or is introduced by the conjunction that. Do not capitalize an indirect quotation	54	(1)
Direct quotation	54	(1)
Partial sentence	54	(1)
Sentence parts	55	(1)
Following ``that''	55	(1)
Indirect quotation	55	(1)
Capitalization of original	55	(1)
Capitalize the first word in a direct question, even if it does not begin the sentence	55	(1)
Direct question	55	(1)
Indirect question distinguished	56	(1)
Capitalize proper nouns---usually, the names of people and places or the titles of statutes, books, articles, and the like	56	(1)
Common and proper nouns	56	(1)
Trademarks	56	(1)
Artwork	56	(1)
Midword capitals	56	(1)
Proper-noun phrases	56	(1)
Old writings	56	(1)
Capitalize short-form proper nouns	57	(1)
Full and short names	57	(1)
Specific governmental acts	57	(1)
The term ``rule''	57	(1)
Follow established conventions in capitalizing adjectives formed from proper nouns	57	(1)
Exclusively proper nouns	57	(1)
Nonexclusive nouns	57	(1)
Nonexclusive adjectives	58	(1)
Capitalize defined terms	58	(1)
Convention	58	(1)
Syntax	58	(1)
Emphasis and clarity	58	(1)
Capitalize up-style headings	58	(1)
Styles	58	(1)
Uncapitalized words	59	(1)
Hyphenated and open compounds	59	(1)
Make initialisms and acronyms (words and abbreviated names formed from the initials or parts of other words) all caps unless an exception applies	59	(1)
Generally	59	(1)
Proper-name acronyms	59	(1)
Generic common nouns	59	(1)
State abbreviations	60
False acronyms	59	(1)
Capitalize the word court in reference to (1) the United States Supreme Court; (2) the highest tribunal in the jurisdiction whose laws govern the outcome, such as a state supreme court; and (3) the court you are addressing, even if it is the lowest court within its jurisdiction	60	(1)
Deference	60	(1)
Lower courts	60	(1)
Capitalize a geographic term if it is part of a proper name or, by custom, if it denotes a well-defined region or area, but not if it merely denotes a direction or position	60	(1)
Compass points	60	(1)
Positions	60	(1)
Descriptive or identifying terms	61	(1)
Political divisions	61	(1)
Topographical names	61	(1)
Capitalize calendar terms that are proper nouns, but not those that are generic terms	61	(1)
Days and months	61	(1)
Seasons	61	(1)
Holidays	61	(1)
Capitalize titles of honor or respect	62	(1)
Title before name	62	(1)
Title not before name	62	(1)
In addresses	62	(1)
Titles in second person	62	(1)
Job titles	62	(1)
Parties	62	(1)
Other cases	63	(1)
Capitalize a word or phrase that denotes an important epoch or historical event	63	(1)
Generally	63	(1)
Numerical designations	63	(1)
Generic terms	63	(1)
Capitalize the name of anything personified	63	(1)
Proper-name substitutes	63	(1)
Fictitious names	63	(1)
Vividness	63	(1)
Capitalize to show irony or mockery	64	(1)
Emphasis	64	(1)
Caution	64	(1)
Avoid all-caps writing	64	(1)
History	64	(1)
Readability	64	(1)
Initial caps	64	(1)
Limited capitals	65	(1)
Different font	65	(1)
Limited all caps	65	(1)
Use caps and small caps (uppercase letters about as small as most lowercase letters) when a citation-system rule or other directive requires them or when the usage is conventional	65	(2)
Dates and eras	65	(1)
Other abbreviations	66	(1)
Never in main text	66	(1)
Periodical titles	66	(1)
Book titles	66	(1)
Authors	66	(1)
Law-review citations	67	(1)
Follow any special rules that may require caps and small caps	67	(2)
Court rules	67	(1)
Government rules	68	(1)
Practitioners' usage	68	(1)
Judicial opinions	68	(1)
Italics, Boldface, and Underlining	69	(8)
Overview	69	(1)
Use italics (preferably not underlining) to show emphasis	69	(1)
Styles compared	69	(1)
Exception	70	(1)
In quotations	70	(1)
Use italics for foreign words and phrases that have not been anglicized	70	(1)
Uneven application	70	(1)
General rule	70	(1)
Use italics to signal that a letter, word, or phrase is being used as a term---when defining it, for example---rather than for its meaning	71	(1)
Preferred to quotation marks	71	(1)
In contracts	71	(1)
In hypotheticals	71	(1)
Use italics for case names	71	(1)
Legal convention	71	(1)
Informal names	72	(1)
In text	72	(1)
Use italics for the titles of books and other publications, and (only in legal writing) for the titles of articles	72	(1)
Books	72	(1)
Articles	72	(1)
Periodicals	72	(1)
Use italics for citation signals	73	(1)
Purpose	73	(1)
Signals as sentence elements	73	(1)
Use italics to report subsequent history in a citation, but not for other information	73	(1)
Subsequent history	73	(1)
Other information	73	(1)
When a word or phrase within italicized matter should itself be italicized, make it roman instead	73	(1)
Toggle between roman and italics	73	(1)
Context	73	(1)
Do not italicize a punctuation mark after italicized matter unless it is a part of the matter itself	74	(1)
Trailing punctuation	74	(1)
Exception	74	(1)
Despite all the earlier rules, do not overuse italics	74	(1)
Effective when rare	74	(1)
Ineffective when overused	74	(1)
Rhetorical techniques	75	(1)
Explaining emphasis	75	(1)
Reserve boldface type for headings	75	(1)
For separation	75	(1)
Not in text	75	(1)
Use italics for names of ships, spacecraft, and other vessels	76	(1)
Name only, not class	76	(1)
Trains	76	(1)
Document Design	77	(12)
Overview	77	(1)
Follow court rules in formatting all documents to be filed in court	77	(1)
Meticulous formatting	77	(1)
Typographical tricks	77	(1)
Fonts	77	(1)
Choose a readable font that is appropriate for the document	77	(1)
Definitions	77	(1)
Variations	78	(1)
Courier	78	(1)
Never use more than two fonts in a document	78	(1)
Mixing styles	78	(1)
Ransom-note effect	79	(1)
Use an appropriate type size	79	(1)
Readability	79	(1)
Size	79	(1)
Headings	79	(1)
White Space	80	(1)
Use white space purposefully	80	(1)
Definition and purpose	80	(1)
Focal point	80	(1)
Contrast	80	(1)
Comprehension	80	(1)
Leave a little more room in your margins than you are required to	80	(1)
Readability	80	(1)
Convenience	81	(1)
Extra space at bottom	81	(1)
Gutters	81	(1)
Use initial indents of a quarter of an inch or so; use the tab key or automatic paragraph formatting to keep them consistent	81	(1)
Purpose	81	(1)
Width of indents	81	(1)
Block quotations	81	(1)
Uniformity	81	(1)
Use hanging indents on contracts, statutes, and other documents with numbered and lettered subparts	81	(1)
Definition	81	(1)
Purpose of hanging indents	81	(1)
Length of indents	82	(1)
Justification	82	(1)
Avoid full justification; set text flush left	82	(1)
Definition	82	(1)
Readability	82	(1)
Avoiding rivers	82	(1)
Reserve centering and flush-right alignments for special uses	82	(1)
Centering	82	(1)
Flush right	83	(1)
Horizontal Spacing	83	(1)
Use even forward-spacing in your documents: one space between words and one space after punctuation marks (including colons and periods)	83	(1)
Typewriter limitations	83	(1)
Word processors and flexibility	83	(1)
Use a hard (nonbreaking) space to avoid breaking lines at inappropriate places	83	(1)
Hard space	83	(1)
Importance	83	(1)
Ellipses	84	(1)
Mark the beginning of a paragraph by tab-indenting the first line. In a single-spaced document, leave an extra line between paragraphs	84	(1)
Indenting	84	(1)
New chapter or section	84	(1)
Intervening space	84	(1)
Block style	84	(1)
To ensure that the indentation is consistent throughout the document, use a tab instead of the spacebar for indenting	84	(1)
Paragraph indents	84	(1)
Aligning columns	84	(1)
Avoid adjusting a font's spacing or width	85	(1)
Spacing	85	(1)
Width	85	(1)
Limitations	85	(1)
Vertical Spacing	85	(1)
Prefer single-spaced documents in-house, but for court filings always follow rules and customs that require double-spacing	85	(1)
Advantages of single-spacing	85	(1)
Disadvantages of double-spacing	85	(1)
Court rules	85	(1)
Double-space draft documents to make them easier to edit	86	(1)
Editing ease	86	(1)
Triple-spacing	86	(1)
Avoid awkward page breaks	86	(1)
Headings	86	(1)
Widows and orphans	86	(1)
Headings	86	(1)
Make the hierarchy of headings clear to the reader by using a combination of outlining tags, capitalization style, type style, and type size	86	(1)
Outlining tags	86	(1)
Decimal tags for legal drafting	86	(1)
Capitalization	86	(1)
Type style	86	(1)
Type size	87	(1)
Combining techniques	87	(1)
Number of levels	87	(1)
Progressive indents	87	(1)
Cascading hanging indents in legal drafting	87	(1)
Except for short top-level section headings, which may be centered, prefer headines to be set flush left and single-spaced, with a tight hanging indent	87	(1)
Centering	87	(1)
Flush left	87	(1)
Single-spaced	87	(1)
Hanging indent	87	(1)
Use headings and subheadings to help the reader follow the structure of your document. Use a little extra space above breaks to help divide up the text	88	(1)
Reader cues	88	(1)
Spacing	88	(1)
SubheaPdings	88	(1)
Numbers	89	(10)
Overview	89	(1)
Be consistent about when to use numerals and when to spell out numbers in text---preferably spelling out one to ten and using numerals for 11 and above	89	(1)
Main conventions	89	(1)
Other conventions	89	(1)
Numerals in citations	89	(1)
In titles	90	(1)
If one item of a kind should be in numerals, then use numerals for all items of that kind in the immediate context	90	(1)
In series	90	(1)
In proximity	90	(1)
If two numbers that are not of the same kind appear next to each other, one (usually the first) should be spelled out to avoid confusion	90	(1)
First number	90	(1)
Second number	90	(1)
Avoid beginning a sentence with a number; if you must use a number to begin a sentence, spell it out	90	(1)
Start of sentence	90	(1)
Years	90	(1)
Citation	91	(1)
Use numerals for statute, volume, chapter, section, and subsection numbers; in tables; in dates and times; for money; with units of measurement; in decimals; and in names of roads, military divisions, and the like	91	(1)
Count and series	91	(1)
Exceptions for names	91	(1)
Other exceptions	91	(1)
Spell out a large number that is used as an exaggeration or an idiomatic phrase	92	(1)
Exactness not implied	92	(1)
In slogans	92	(1)
For a number in the millions or more (especially if precision is not required), round it off and spell out million, billion, etc.	92	(1)
Comprehension	92	(1)
Rounding off	92	(1)
Dollar sign and word	92	(1)
When precision counts	92	(1)
In legal citations, spell the ordinal numerals 2d and 3d, not 2nd and 3rd	92	(1)
Legal convention	92	(1)
General convention	92	(1)
Be careful not to allow any ambiguity when writing numbers	93	(1)
``K'' and ``M''	93	(1)
Billion and larger	93	(1)
Use a comma to separate large whole-number digits into sets of three, from the right, but do not use commas in room numbers, telephone numbers, highway numbers, military time, years, or other serial numbers, or in page numbers shorter than five digits	93	(1)
For thousands	93	(1)
Exceptions	93	(1)
Page numbers	94	(1)
Not in decimals	94	(1)
Use an en-dash (or a hyphen) to signal an inclusive range of numbers; do not use the words from or between in front of numbers connected by an en-dash	94	(1)
Using ``from'' and ``between''	94	(1)
Avoiding multiple en-dashes	94	(1)
Word of measurement	94	(1)
Or hyphen	94	(1)
Be careful about using apostrophes with numbers	94	(1)
Plurals	94	(1)
Possessives	95	(1)
Elide to two digits the second number in a range of pages if the numbers are three or more digits long, but do not elide numbers in a range of sections or paragraphs, a range of measurements, or a span of years	95	(1)
Rules	95	(1)
Not with measurements	95	(1)
Sections and paragraphs	95	(1)
Not with years	95	(1)
Use the simplest appropriate forms for times, dates, and money	95	(1)
Unless needed for accuracy	95	(1)
Relative time references	96	(1)
When spelling out numbers, hyphenate only the two-word numbers below 100; do not use and except when expressing cents	96	(1)
Hyphen alone	96	(1)
With ``and''	96	(1)
Hyphenate spelled-out fractions unless one of the terms is itself hyphenated	96	(1)
Generally	96	(1)
Exception	96	(1)
Use Roman numerals sparingly and according to convention	97	(2)
Successors	97	(1)
Outlines	97	(1)
Front matter	97	(1)
Miscellaneous uses	97	(2)
Typographic Symbols	99	(4)
Overview	99	(1)
When referring to a specific section or paragraph number, use the symbol § (section) or ¶ (paragraph) in text and citations, unless the symbol would start a sentence	99	(1)
Legal convention	99	(1)
Beginning sentence	99	(1)
Pluralize some typographic symbols by doubling them. So when referring to two or more sections or paragraphs, use the double symbol §§ or ¶¶
In citations	100	(1)
Exception with subsections	100	(1)
Et seq.	100	(1)
Use the symbols $, ¢, %, and ° with numerals in text; spell out the words when used alone	100	(1)
Commonly understood	100	(1)
Spelling out	100	(1)
Range	100	(1)
Foot, inch marks	101	(1)
``At'' symbol	101	(1)
Use an ampersand in a business name, in a case citation, and in a citation to a work by two or more authors	101	(1)
In business names	101	(1)
In case names	101	(1)
With multiple authors	102	(1)
Do not use a trademark or copyright symbol in text	102	(1)
Purpose	102	(1)
Significance	102	(1)
Copyright notice	102	(1)
Spelling	103	(20)
Overview	103	(1)
General Principles	103	(1)
Always use your computer's spell-checker, but never rely on it alone	103	(1)
Generally	103	(1)
Self-check	103	(1)
Proofreaders	103	(1)
Autocorrection	103	(1)
Use an up-to-date dictionary; preferably, everyone in an organization should use the same one	104	(1)
Current edition	104	(1)
Uniformity	104	(1)
Keep a list of the words you have trouble with; update it regularly and keep it handy	104	(1)
Troublesome words	104	(1)
Ease of reference	104	(1)
Know the elementary spelling rules	104	(1)
``I'' before ``e''	104	(1)
Silent ``-e'' and suffixes	104	(1)
``-y'' ending and suffixes	105	(1)
Doubling consonants	105	(1)
``-ic'' ending and suffixes	105	(1)
Avoid hyphens with most prefixes and suffixes	105	(1)
Modern trend	105	(1)
Proper nouns	106	(1)
Hyphenated prefixes	106	(1)
For clarity	106	(1)
With numerals	106	(1)
Proper names	106	(1)
With hyphenated phrases	106	(1)
Suffixes	106	(1)
Plurals	106	(1)
Form the plural of most regular nouns by adding -s or -es	106	(1)
Basic rule	106	(1)
Sibilant endings	106	(1)
``-y'' ending	106	(1)
``-o'' ending	106	(1)
``-f'' or ``-fe'' ending	107	(1)
Irregular words	107	(1)
Proper names	107	(1)
Check the spelling of the plural forms of foreign terms; in most instances, prefer the anglicized form if one exists	107	(1)
``-is'' ending	107	(1)
``-um'' ending	107	(1)
``-us'' ending	107	(1)
``-a'' ending	108	(1)
``-on'' ending	108	(1)
``-ex'' or ``-ix'' ending	108	(1)
``-eau'' ending	108	(1)
Retained forms	108	(1)
In general, form the plural of a compound noun by pluralizing the main element	108	(1)
Equivalents	108	(1)
Noun and modifier	108	(1)
Noun and particle	108	(1)
Verb and particle	109	(1)
Particle first	109	(1)
``-ful'' ending	109	(1)
Follow a consistent style in forming the plurals of letters, words used as words (rather than for their meaning), numbers, and abbreviations	109	(1)
Letters	109	(1)
Words as words	109	(1)
Numbers	109	(1)
Initialisms	109	(1)
Abbreviations	109	(1)
Citations	109	(1)
Measurements	109	(1)
Possessives	110	(1)
Add -'s to the end of a word to form the possessive of (1) a singular noun, or (2) a plural noun that does not end in an s or z sound (always an irregular plural)	110	(1)
Basic rule	110	(1)
Sibilant endings	110	(1)
Names	110	(1)
Test	110	(1)
Ancient names	110	(1)
Singular name, plural form	110	(1)
``For---sake''	110	(1)
Grocer's apostrophe	110	(1)
Add an apostrophe to the end of a word to form the possessive of a plural noun that ends in an s or z sound	111	(1)
Basic rule	111	(1)
Exception	111	(1)
Do not use apostrophes with possessive pronouns or who	111	(1)
Confused with contractions	111	(1)
Simple test	111	(1)
With phrases, form the possessive on the last word	111	(1)
Last word	111	(1)
Contrasted with compound plurals	111	(1)
Precenting awkwardness	111	(1)
Use the same rules for numbers and abbreviations	111	(1)
Number examples	111	(1)
Abbreviation examples	111	(1)
Compounds	112	(1)
Overview	112	(1)
A compound formed by two nouns of equal importance is likely to be closed	112	(1)
Pronunciation clue	112	(1)
Evolving use	112	(1)
Human suffixes	112	(1)
The combination of an adjective and a noun is usually open	113	(1)
Generally	113	(1)
Distinct meaning	113	(1)
Combine words of equal importance with an en-dash	113	(1)
Duality	113	(1)
Measurement	113	(1)
Hyphen acceptable	113	(1)
When a noun is joined with a preceding preposition or adverb, the compound is usually closed	113	(1)
Independent meaning	113	(1)
No independent meaning	113	(1)
When a noun is joined to a gerund, it is usually hyphenated	113	(1)
Temporary terms	113	(1)
Permanent terms	113	(1)
Closed terms	113	(1)
Open terms	114	(1)
When a verb is coupled with a preposition or adverb, it is open, but a noun derived from the same form is either closed (usually) or hyphenated	114	(1)
Phrasal verbs	114	(1)
As closed nouns	114	(1)
Short particles	114	(1)
When a verb is joined to a preceding preposition or adverb, the resulting word is closed; words formed this way do not serve as nouns	114	(1)
Effect of closing	114	(1)
Noun formation	114	(1)
A verb formed from a compound noun often takes the same form as the noun	115	(1)
Closed	115	(1)
Hyphenated	115	(1)
Adjective-noun phrase	115	(1)
For many other terms, no reliable principles apply; use a current dictionary to check the spelling	115	(1)
Possessive noun-noun	115	(1)
Agent noun	115	(1)
Verb-particle	115	(1)
Longer phrases	115	(1)
Letter plus noun	115	(1)
American vs. British Spelling	115	(1)
Be aware of variations in American and British spelling. For the most part, the differences fall into one of several categories	115	(2)
Scope	115	(1)
``-ize'' vs. ``-ise''	116	(1)
``-or'' vs. ``-our''	116	(1)
Doubling the final ``-l''	116	(1)
``-er'' vs. ``-re''	117	(1)
``-dge'' words	117	(1)
Hyphenated forms	117	(1)
``-ogue'' words	117	(1)
Miscellaneous	118
Common Misspellings	117	(1)
Be wary of common misspellings. Below are the correct spellings of the most frequently misspelled words in the language	118	(5)
Citations	123	(12)
Overview	123	(1)
Choose a citation system and stick to its essential conventions throughout a particular writing	123	(1)
The Bluebook	123	(1)
ALWD	123	(1)
Maroonbook	123	(1)
State style manuals	124	(1)
If court rules, journal guidelines, or any other directives conflict with the citation system you use, follow the directives	124	(1)
Courts	124	(1)
Law journals	124	(1)
Learn the fundamental rules of how to cite authority. But don't get so lost in the minutiae that you forget why they exist: to help the reader check your research	124	(1)
Basics	124	(1)
Trivia and nonsense	125	(1)
Cite the record unobtrusively	125	(1)
Basics	125	(1)
Page and line	125	(1)
Overcitation	125	(1)
Choose which precedents to cite based on authority, hierarchy, freshness, and clarity of reasoning. Avoid string citations	125	(1)
Authority	125	(1)
Hierarchy	125	(1)
Freshness	125	(1)
Reasoning	125	(1)
Number of citations	126	(1)
No controlling authority	126	(1)
Use abbreviations as required by your citation system in the first full citation	126	(1)
First citation	126	(1)
Lists	126	(1)
Use short-form citations after the first full citation	126	(1)
Clarity	126	(1)
Distinctive name	126	(1)
Use pinpoint citations when quoting, paraphrasing, or referring to a specific part of an opinion	127	(1)
Purpose	127	(1)
Pinpoint citation to first page	127	(1)
Paragraphs	127	(1)
Credibility	127	(1)
Use id. carefully	127	(1)
Function of ``id''	127	(1)
Multiple authorities	127	(1)
And ``ibid''	127	(1)
Avoid infra, supra, op. cit., loc. cit., and similar abbreviations to refer to a citation that appears elsewhere in the writing	128	(1)
Definitions	128	(1)
Footnotes	128	(1)
Law reviews	128	(1)
When citing sequential pages, sections, paragraphs, or similar elements, use an en-dash to elide the numerals. If you elide page numbers of three or more digits, always show two digits after the en-dash	128	(1)
When citing a concurring, dissenting, en banc, or plurality opinion, include the type of opinion in parentheses immediately after the court and year but before any other parenthetical information. Identify the author of a concurrence or dissent	128	(1)
Plurality opinion	128	(1)
Concurrence or dissent	129	(1)
Unsigned opinion	129	(1)
Full-court hearing	129	(1)
Space parenthetical explanations or quotations correctly in relation to the rest of the citation	129	(1)
Spacing	129	(1)
Punctuation	129	(1)
If parenthetical matter is given with a citation, it should appear before the subsequent history	130	(1)
History	130	(1)
Additional citation	130	(1)
Use the correct signal to show the relationship between a textual statement and the material cited	130	(2)
Basics	130	(1)
Older legal materials	131	(1)
Modern resources	131	(1)
Undefined signals	132	(1)
Order of use	132	(1)
Do what you reasonably can to condense citations	132	(1)
Abbreviations	132	(1)
Short-form citations	132	(1)
Redundancy	132	(1)
Avoid parallel citations unless local rules require them	132	(1)
Generally	132	(1)
Punctuation	132	(1)
Undesirability	132	(1)
Use a parenthetical note if an explanation would explain how the citation supports the argument	132	(1)
Clarification	132	(1)
Multiple sources	133	(1)
Specificity	133	(1)
Obscurity	133	(1)
Form	133	(1)
Never trust the citations in another document. Always verify from original sources	133	(1)
Electronic shortcomings	133	(1)
Inaccurate information	134	(1)
Older legal materials	134	(1)
Sanctions	134	(1)
Before you submit your writing to anyone else, double-check your citations to ensure that the citation form and subsequent history are correct	134	(1)
Updates	134	(1)
Proper authorities	134	(1)
If no legal-citation manual explains how to cite some material, such as an electronic or Internet source, consult a current nonlegal style manual	134	(1)
Nonlegal style	134	(1)
Clarity	134	(1)
Footnotes	135	(8)
Overview	135	(1)
Follow whatever prescriptions are set down in court rules, journal guidelines, or any other controlling directives	135	(1)
Court rules	135	(1)
Law reviews	135	(1)
Set footnotes in smaller type than the text, and single-space them	135	(1)
Font	135	(1)
Type size	135	(1)
Use sequential numbering for footnotes throughout most documents	136	(1)
Documents and articles	136	(1)
Books and treatises	136	(1)
Arabic numerals	136	(1)
Put the superscript footnote number after all punctuation marks except a dash and, sometimes, a closing parenthesis	136	(1)
Quotation marks	136	(1)
Dash	136	(1)
Parentheses	136	(1)
Never use more than one superscript in the same place	137	(1)
Lack of clarity	137	(1)
Contrary information	137	(1)
Consolidate multiple sources into one footnote when possible	137	(1)
Full support	137	(1)
Paragraph footnotes	138	(1)
Distinctions	138	(1)
Never use footnotes to evade page-limit restrictions	138	(1)
Ethics	138	(1)
Sanctions	138	(1)
Minimize substantive footnotes	139	(4)
Distracting and tiresome	139	(1)
Bad reactions	139	(1)
Ignoring arguments in footnotes	139	(4)
Part 2: Grammar, Usage, and Editing
Grammar	143	(40)
Overview	143	(1)
Nouns	143	(1)
Overview	143	(1)
Ensure that related nouns agree in number	144	(1)
Concrete nouns	144	(1)
Abstract nouns	144	(1)
Indicate joint possession by making only the final noun in the series possessive; indicate separate possession by making each noun in a series possessive	144	(1)
Joint possession	144	(1)
Individual possession	144	(1)
Use the possessive case with a noun when the sense is a measurement of time or value, but consider recasting the sentence with a phrasal adjective instead	144	(1)
As measurement	144	(1)
Old-fashioned	145	(1)
Use the double-possessive construction (of---'s) with a noun to shift perspective to the object: the focus is on the object's relationship to the subject of the preposition, not the other way around	145	(1)
Redundancy	145	(1)
To avoid ambiguity	145	(1)
Reword	145	(1)
Ensure that an appositive agrees with and directly follows the noun or noun phrase that it identifies or supplements; if it is nonrestrictive, set it off with commas, parentheses, or em-dashes	145	(1)
Defined	145	(1)
Agreement	146	(1)
If nonrestrictive	146	(1)
Be careful about irregular plurals	146	(1)
Irregular forms	146	(1)
Romance syntax	147	(1)
Foreign terms	147	(1)
Same form	147	(1)
Confused singulars	147	(1)
Pronouns	147	(1)
Overview	147	(1)
Make the grammatical antecedent of a pronoun the noun that (1) precedes the pronoun most closely, and (2) agrees in number, gender, and person with that pronoun	148	(3)
Number	148	(1)
Generally	148	(1)
From antecedent	148	(1)
Conjunctive compound antecedent	148	(1)
Disjunctive compound antecedent	148	(1)
Disjunctive with mixed antecedents	149	(1)
Two or more adjectives	149	(1)
Singular indefinite pronoun	149	(1)
Plural indefinite pronoun	149	(1)
Other indefinite pronouns	149	(1)
Collective nouns	150	(1)
Relative pronouns	150	(1)
Gender	150	(1)
Generally	150	(1)
Third-person singular	150	(1)
Gender-neutral masculine	150	(1)
Singular ``they''	151	(1)
Neuter by default	151	(1)
Person	151	(1)
Generally	151	(1)
Distinguished	151	(1)
Make pronoun references unambiguous	151	(1)
Multiple antecedents	151	(1)
Repeated pronoun	152	(1)
Explicit antecedent	152	(1)
Noun antecedent	152	(1)
Antecedent first	152	(1)
Use the nominative case for a subject or a predicate nominative	152	(1)
Generally	152	(1)
As predicate nominative	152	(1)
As subject of dependent clause	153	(1)
Use the objective case for (1) the direct or indirect object of a verb, or (2) the object of a preposition	153	(1)
Generally	153	(1)
Determined by function	153	(1)
Use the correct case and order when using a first-person pronoun with a noun or another personal pronoun in a compound phrase	153	(1)
First person last	153	(1)
Hypercorrection in first person	153	(1)
In formal writing, use the nominative case after than if the pronoun would be nominative in the understood clause that follows than	154	(1)
As a conjunction	154	(1)
As a preposition	154	(1)
In formal writing, use the nominative case for a pronoun used as a predicate nominative, renaming the subject after a linking verb	154	(1)
Formal usage	154	(1)
Informal usages	154	(1)
Use the possessive case of a pronoun to show ownership, attribution, measure, or some similar relationship	155	(1)
Generally	155	(1)
No apostrophe	155	(1)
Absolute possessives	155	(1)
With a gerund	155	(1)
Use the double-possessive construction (of + absolute possessive) with personal pronouns	155	(1)
Mandatory with pronouns	155	(1)
To intensify	155	(1)
Use the relative pronoun who to refer to people only (although whose may refer to things as well); which to refer to things or animals only; and that to refer to either people or things (or both)	156	(1)
``That'' with people	156	(1)
``Which'' with things	156	(1)
``Whose'' with things	156	(1)
For relative pronouns referring to anything other than people, use that to introduce a restrictive clause and which (after a comma) to introduce a nonrestrictive clause	156	(2)
Restrictive clause	156	(1)
Nonrestrictive clause	157	(1)
``That'' as restrictive	157	(1)
``Which'' as nonrestrictive	157	(1)
No commas with restrictive clauses	158	(1)
Use reflexive and reciprocal pronouns with care	158	(1)
Reflexive for objective	158	(1)
When object is also subject	158	(1)
When subject is repeated for emphasis	158	(1)
``Each other'' and ``one another''	158	(1)
Verbs	158	(1)
Overview	158	(2)
Use a singular verb after a singular subject	160	(2)
Generally	160	(1)
Distractions	160	(1)
Dependent clauses	160	(1)
Compound but singular in meaning	161	(1)
Compound referring to one thing	161	(1)
Illusory compounds	161	(1)
Idioms with indefinite pronouns	161	(1)
Idioms with ``each'' and ``every''	161	(1)
Idiom with ``many a''	162	(1)
Phrases of measurement	162	(1)
Use a plural verb after a plural subject	162	(1)
Generally	162	(1)
Conjunctive compound	162	(1)
With ``each'' in apposition	162	(1)
Plural indefinite pronouns	162	(1)
With class adjectives	162	(1)
Plural-form nouns	163	(1)
With certain types of subjects, use the context of the sentence to determine whether a singular or plural verb is required	163	(2)
With count nouns	163	(1)
With collective nouns	163	(1)
With singular-form nouns	164	(1)
With foreign nouns	164	(1)
With ``-ics'' words	164	(1)
In relative clauses	164	(1)
If the subject is a disjunctive compound (joined by or or nor), the verb should agree with the element of the compound closest to the verb; if the compound contains both singular and plural elements, try to place the plural subject closest to the verb	165	(1)
With singular subjects	165	(1)
Singular in meaning	165	(1)
With mixed elements	165	(1)
Plural element last	165	(1)
Minimize the passive voice	165	(2)
Recognizing it	165	(1)
Editing it	166	(1)
When it's appropriate	166	(1)
Use the subjunctive mood to express a wish, a demand, a requirement, an exhortation, or a statement contrary to fact---as well as in a number of fixed idioms	167	(1)
Generally	167	(1)
``That''-clause of need	167	(1)
Expressing a wish	167	(1)
Exhortations and things contrary to fact	167	(1)
In fixed idioms	168	(1)
Connect every participial phrase to its subject	168	(1)
At start of sentence	168	(1)
Close to subject	168	(1)
Misplaced and dangling modifiers	168	(1)
In a compound predicate, if an auxiliary verb grammatically matches all the main verbs, omit it after its first use	169	(1)
Style benefits	169	(1)
Parallel constructions	169	(1)
Use the past tense to describe what a court did in a particular case. Otherwise, when discussing the law, generally use the present tense	169	(1)
Present tense as default	169	(1)
Past tense for case history	169	(1)
Adjectives	170	(1)
Overview	170	(1)
Use the comparative form as a measure of quality between two things and the superlative form as a measure of quality among three or more	171	(1)
Regular forms	171	(1)
Irregular forms	171	(1)
With ``more-most,'' ``less-least''	171	(1)
Class comparison	171	(1)
Double comparatives	171	(1)
Use an adjective, not an adverb, as a subject complement (predicate adjective) after a be-verb or other linking verb, a verb of perception, or a verb of becoming	172	(1)
With linking verbs	172	(1)
With verbs of sense or becoming	172	(1)
Don't use an adverb of comparison with an absolute adjective	172	(1)
No qualifiers	172	(1)
``Almost'' and ``nearly''	172	(1)
Use dates as adjectives sparingly	172	(1)
Full dates as adjectives	172	(1)
Short dates as adjectives	172	(1)
In some phrases and idiomatic constructions, use an adjective after the word it modifies	173	(1)
Legal terms	173	(1)
Pronouns	173	(1)
Stilted phrasing	173	(1)
Use the definite article the to signal a specific person, place, or thing; use the indefinite article a or an to signal a generic reference	173	(1)
Placement	173	(1)
Deciding between ``a'' and ``an''	173	(1)
Adverbs	173	(1)
Overview	173	(1)
Place an adverb in its strongest position, often at the beginning of a sentence or inside a verb phrase	174	(1)
After first auxiliary	174	(1)
Split infinitive	175	(1)
Temporal adverbs	175	(1)
Contrast at start of sentence	175	(1)
Emphasis at end of sentence	175	(1)
Place emphatic adverbs such as only, so, very, quite, and just immediately before whatever they modify	175	(1)
Placement of ``only''	175	(1)
Idiomatic placement	176	(1)
Prepositions	176	(1)
Overview	176	(1)
To combat verbosity, minimize prepositional phrases	176	(2)
Buried verbs	176	(1)
One-word replacements	177	(1)
Active voice	177	(1)
As a cause of bloat	177	(1)
When possible, omit a repeated preposition or object in favor of a compound construction, but don't if the omission would make the construction unparallel	178	(1)
Compound object	178	(1)
Ambiguity	178	(1)
Compound prepositions	178	(1)
Conjunctions	178	(1)
Overview	178	(1)
Use a coordinating conjunction to join like elements	178	(1)
Definition	178	(1)
Punctuation	179	(1)
When appropriate, use a coordinating conjunction to begin a sentence to emphasize contrast (but, yet), additional support for a proposition (and), an alternative (or), or a logical conclusion (so)	179	(1)
Start of sentence	179	(1)
Stuffiness	179	(1)
Use a subordinating conjunction to join a dependent clause to the main clause of a complex sentence	179	(1)
Definition	179	(1)
To show relationships	180	(1)
Make sure that correlative conjunctions frame sentence parts that match each other grammatically	180	(1)
Definition	180	(1)
Parallelism	180	(1)
Interjections	181	(1)
Use interjections sparingly, if at all	181	(2)
Definition	181	(1)
Limited use	181	(2)
Stuffy Words and Legalese	183	(28)
Overview	183	(1)
Use the simplest, most straightforward words that you can	183	(11)
Plain English	183	(1)
Simple substitutes	183	(4)
Paring down phrases	187	(3)
Avoiding legalese	190	(2)
Useless verbiage	192	(1)
Synonymia	192	(2)
Unless the context requires otherwise, use legal terms according to their specialized sense as terms of art	194	(17)
Terms of art---Latin	194	(1)
Terms of art---ordinary words with special legal senses	194	(17)
Troublesome Words	211	(108)
Overview	211	(1)
Use words correctly and precisely	211	(1)
Correctness	211	(1)
Precision	211	(1)
Consult this glossary to find the correct uses of problematic expressions---words and phrases that are sometimes misused in legal writing	212	(67)
Use the correct preposition for the meaning you intend	279	(32)
Idiomatic phrasing	279	(1)
List of prepositional pairings	279	(32)
Avoid needlessly offending readers with your word choice	311	(8)
Characteristics	311	(1)
Professional conduct	311	(1)
Ineffective advocacy	311	(1)
Unwarranted distinctions	312	(1)
Person, not characteristic	312	(1)
Labels	312	(1)
Euphemisms	313	(1)
Equivalence	313	(1)
Slang	314	(1)
Jargon	314	(1)
False friends	314	(1)
Suitability	314	(1)
Capitalization	315	(1)
Gender-neutral language	315	(1)
Titles	316	(1)
Gender-specific language	317	(1)
Age references	317	(1)
Sexual orientation	318	(1)
Religious references	318	(1)
Editing and Proofreading	319	(6)
Review your work closely and systematically to improve the style	319	(1)
Two readings necessary---three desirable	319	(1)
Worsening the piece	319	(1)
Habitually ask yourself the six Orwellian questions	319	(1)
Orwell's questions	319	(1)
Applicability to editing	319	(1)
Tighten the style by ridding the draft of verbosity	320	(1)
Tightening generally	320	(1)
Minimizing the passive voice	320	(1)
Uncovering buried verbs	320	(1)
Trimming prepositional phrases	320	(1)
Replacing wordy phrases	320	(1)
Sharpen the writing by reducing abstractions	320	(1)
Sharpening generally	320	(1)
Nouns and verbs	321	(1)
Try a phased approach in editing, making several passes through the document: begin with large, structural edits: then make basic sentence-level edits; then look for subtler sentence-level edits: finally, polish the piece for clarity	321	(1)
Systematic approach	321	(1)
Stage one: macro edits	321	(1)
Stage two: basic micro edits	321	(1)
Stage three: advanced micro edits	322	(1)
Stage four: polishing	322	(1)
Learn and use the standard proofreaders' marks	322	(3)
The necessity of editing on paper	322	(1)
The value of standard marks	322	(1)
List of proofreaders' marks	322	(3)
Part 3: Preparing Legal Documents
Business Correspondence	325	(8)
Understand the main goals of business correspondence	325	(1)
Communicating effectively	325	(1)
Making an impression	325	(1)
Providing a record	325	(1)
Think about the specific goals of your correspondence
Being reader-friendly	326	(1)
Projecting your personality	326	(1)
Exuding professionalism	326	(1)
Avoid the common faults of business correspondence	326	(1)
Lacking focus	326	(1)
Making multiple requests	326	(1)
Using inappropriate style	326	(1)
Blundering	327	(1)
Hiding information	327	(1)
Omitting information	327	(1)
Use a standard format for business letters	327	(2)
Modified block style	327	(1)
Date	327	(1)
Margins and type	328	(1)
Titles	328	(1)
Subject line	328	(1)
Appropriate salutation	328	(1)
The corporate and legal ``we''	328	(1)
Complimentary closes	329	(1)
Modifying your identification as appropriate	329	(1)
Copies	329	(1)
Study effective business correspondence	329	(4)
Recommended books	329	(1)
Examples	329	(4)
Case Briefs	333	(6)
Understand the main goals of a case brief	333	(1)
Generally	333	(1)
Orderly format	333	(1)
Critical thinking	333	(1)
Comprehension	333	(1)
Time management	334	(1)
Think about the specific goals of your case brief	334	(1)
Preparing to answer questions	334	(1)
Mastering a new development in the law	334	(1)
Finding an argument for your client	334	(1)
Building a foundation for your research	334	(1)
Avoid the common faults of case briefs	334	(2)
Accepting the court's opinion as gospel	334	(1)
Mistaking dicta for law	335	(1)
Writing without reading the case thoroughly	335	(1)
Skimping on the court's reasoning	335	(1)
Including too much detail	335	(1)
Using weak briefing methods	335	(1)
Ignoring concurrences and dissents	336	(1)
Study effective case briefs	336	(3)
Guidance	336	(1)
Examples	336	(3)
Research Memos	339	(14)
Understand the main goals of a research memo	339	(1)
Generally	339	(1)
To help readers	339	(1)
To summarize issue	339	(1)
To anticipate problems	340	(1)
Think about the specific goals of your research memo	340	(1)
Needs of the assigning attorney	340	(1)
Needs of the client	340	(1)
Need for more research	340	(1)
Avoid the common faults of research memos	340	(2)
Not summarizing up front	340	(1)
Parroting an ill-phrased question	341	(1)
Using surface issues	341	(1)
Waffling in the answer	341	(1)
Meandering	342	(1)
Losing focus	342	(1)
Beginning with lengthy facts	342	(1)
Omitting headings	342	(1)
Overquoting	342	(1)
Citing poorly	343
Study effective research memos	342	(11)
Where to find them	342	(1)
Examples	342	(11)
Opinion Letters	353	(14)
Understand the main goals of an opinion letter	353	(1)
Purpose	353	(1)
Format	353	(1)
Answering the question	353	(1)
Alternatives	354	(1)
Limitations	354	(1)
Who may issue the opinion	354	(1)
Think about the specific goals of your opinion letter	354	(1)
Particular client with particular needs	354	(1)
Written vs. oral opinion	355	(1)
Legal effects	355	(1)
Avoid the common faults of opinion letters	355	(1)
Failing to answer the question	355	(1)
Trying to use a formula	355	(1)
Leaping to a conclusion	356	(1)
Study effective opinion letters	356	(11)
Review good examples	356	(1)
Drafting guidance	356	(1)
Examples	356	(11)
Demand Letters	367	(8)
Understand the main goals of a demand letter	367	(1)
Gauging the reader	367	(1)
Meeting statutory requirements	367	(1)
Documenting efforts to resolve the dispute	367	(1)
Think about the specific goals of your demand letter	367	(2)
Strategy	367	(1)
Specificity and tone	368	(1)
Allowing an independent assessment	368	(1)
Collection letters	368	(1)
Deciding on the recipient	368	(1)
Sending the letter	369	(1)
Avoid the common faults of demand letters	369	(1)
Typical shortcomings	369	(1)
Two caveats	369	(1)
Study effective demand letters	369	(6)
Collect good examples	369	(1)
Examples	370	(5)
Affidavits and Declarations	375	(8)
Understand the main goals of an affidavit	375	(1)
Terminology	375	(1)
General purposes	375	(1)
Basic format	375	(1)
Presenting evidence	375	(1)
Think about the specific goals of your affidavit	376	(1)
Purpose	376	(1)
Helping the reader make a decision	376	(1)
Avoid the common faults of affidavits	376	(1)
Failing to show personal knowledge	376	(1)
Using stiff, unnatural language	376	(1)
Using third person instead of first	376	(1)
Clinging to archaic legalisms	377	(1)
Rambling	377	(1)
Tweaking or ``improving'' facts	377	(1)
Neglecting to label an evidentiary affidavit as an exhibit	377	(1)
Follow rules of evidence	377	(1)
Admissibility	377	(1)
Hearsay	377	(1)
Expert witness	378	(1)
Standard for expert testimony	378	(1)
Writings, business records, photographs, things	378	(1)
Study effective affidavits	378	(5)
Guidance	378	(1)
Examples	378	(5)
Pleadings	383	(8)
Understand the main goals of a pleading	383	(1)
What a pleading is	383	(1)
Complaints generally	383	(1)
Complaints in federal court	383	(1)
Answers	383	(1)
Focus the dispute	384	(1)
Think about the specific goals of your pleading	384	(1)
Protect your client's interests	384	(1)
Essential and additional claims	384	(1)
Answer	384	(1)
Available defenses	384	(1)
Avoid the common faults of pleadings	384	(2)
Violating pleading rules	384	(1)
Overpleading	385	(1)
Omissions in complaints	385	(1)
Omissions in answers	385	(1)
Reliance on boilerplate forms	386	(1)
Verbosity	386	(1)
Study effective pleadings	386	(5)
Model forms	386	(1)
Drafting guidance	386	(1)
Examples	386	(5)
Motions	391	(12)
Understand the main goals of a motion	391	(1)
Purpose	391	(1)
Strategic advantages	391	(1)
Think about the specific goals of your motion	391	(1)
Goals	391	(1)
Proposed order	391	(1)
Cross-motions	392	(1)
Avoid the common faults of motions	392	(1)
Violating rules	392	(1)
Not getting to the point	392	(1)
Overreliance on forms	392	(1)
Failing to cite authority	392	(1)
Incorrect or frivolous contents	393	(1)
Churning	393	(1)
Educating your adversary	393	(1)
Study effective motions	393	(10)
Models	393	(1)
Guidance	393	(1)
An example	393	(10)
Appellate Briefs	403	(32)
Understand the main goals of a brief	403	(1)
Purpose	403	(1)
Tone	403	(1)
Identify the issue	403	(1)
Pertinent facts	403	(1)
Standard of review and governing law	403	(1)
Think about the specific goals of your brief	404	(1)
Appellant (seeking reversal)	404	(1)
Appellee (seeking affirmance)	404	(1)
Client's interests	404	(1)
Your reputation	404	(1)
Avoid the common faults of briefs	405	(2)
Omitting the standard of review	405	(1)
Ignoring statutes and rules	405	(1)
Using a shotgun approach	405	(1)
Misstating facts	406	(1)
Misstating the law	406	(1)
Exhibiting disrespect	406	(1)
Relying on quotations	407	(1)
Failing to address weaknesses	407	(1)
Study effective briefs	407	(28)
Models	407	(1)
Guidance	407	(1)
An example	407	(28)
Judicial Opinions	435	(18)
Understand the main goals of a judicial opinion	435	(1)
Purposes	435	(1)
An extraordinary challenge	435	(1)
Write for as broad an audience as possible	435	(1)
Many possible readers	435	(1)
``Ordinary reader'' as a useful fiction	435	(1)
Develop a good protocol for working on opinions	436	(1)
Working habits	436	(1)
Deficiencies in law-clerk style	436	(1)
Advice to law clerks	436	(1)
Understand the paramount importance of style	437	(1)
Pure vs. impure	437	(1)
Only the necessary facts	437	(1)
Mandate	438	(1)
Avoid the common shortcomings of opinions	438	(1)
Verbosity	438	(1)
Wigmore's six complaints	439	(1)
Tone	439	(1)
Develop a sensible approach to concurrences	439	(1)
Origin of concurrences	439	(1)
Reasons for proliferation	439	(1)
A cynical view of Frankfurter	440	(1)
Concur with caution	440	(1)
Develop a sensible approach to dissent	440	(1)
Dissents generally	440	(1)
Purposes	440	(1)
The old view	440	(1)
The voice of a dissenter	441	(1)
Study effective judicial writing	441	(12)
Widely admired judicial writers	441	(1)
Books on judging	441	(1)
Guidance on judicial writing	442	(1)
Examples	442	(11)
Contracts	453	(18)
Understand the main goals of a contract	453	(1)
Creating a legal relationship	453	(1)
Making terms clear	453	(1)
Think about the specific goals of your contract	453	(1)
Accuracy, completeness, and precision	453	(1)
Protecting the client	453	(1)
Getting the deal done	454	(1)
Avoid the common faults of contracts	454	(2)
Patchwork style	454	(1)
Ambiguous ``shall''	454	(1)
Overreaching	454	(1)
Density	455	(1)
Awkward numbering	455	(1)
Uncritical use of forms	456	(1)
Legalese	456	(1)
Emphasis	456	(1)
Study effective contracts	456	(15)
Models	456	(1)
Guidance	456	(1)
Examples	456	(15)
Word Index	471	(20)
General Index	491