The Science of Sound

by Rossing, Thomas D.; Moore, Richard F.

• ISBN13: 9780805385656
• ISBN10: 0805385657
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-12-18
• Publisher: Pearson

Summary

The Science of Soundis widely recognized as the leading textbook in the field. It provides an excellent introduction to acoustics for readers without college physics or a strong background in mathematics. In the Third Edition, Richard Moore and Paul Wheeler join Tom Rossing in updatingThe Science of Soundto include a wide range of important technological developments in the field of acoustics. New exercises and review questions have been added to the end of each chapter to help readers study the material.For college instructors and students.

Author Biography

Thomas D. Rossing completed his B.A. at Luther College in 1950, his M.S. and Ph.D. at Iowa State University in 1954. His dissertation was in the field of molecular physics. After graduating, he went into industrial research, and from there, he went to teaching. Currently, he is a professor at Northern Illinois University.

Professor Rossing has published more than 200 papers and ten books. He is a Fellow of the Acoustical Society of America and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He has held about a dozen research positions other than at his home institution—in national laboratories, in research universities, and in several other countries. The Acoustical Society of America awarded him the Silver Medal in Musical Acoustics.

Table of Contents

Preface to the Third Edition	xv
I VIBRATIONS, WAVES, AND SOUND	1	(76)
What Is Sound?	3	(19)
What Is a Sound Wave?	3	(1)
Sources of Sound	4	(1)
Wanted and Unwanted Sound	5	(1)
Distance, Speed, and Velocity	6	(2)
Graphical Representation of Motion	8	(2)
Force and Acceleration	10	(2)
Pressure	12	(2)
Graphical Representation of a Sound Wave	14	(1)
Work and Energy	15	(1)
Power	16	(1)
Units	17	(1)
Summary	18	(4)
Vibrating Systems	22	(17)
Simple Harmonic Motion	22	(2)
Energy and Damping	24	(1)
Simple Vibrating Systems	25	(2)
Systems with Two or Three Masses	27	(3)
Systems with Many Modes of Vibration	30	(1)
Vibrations in Musical Instruments	31	(3)
Complex Vibrations: Vibration Spectra	34	(1)
Summary	35	(4)
Waves	39	(21)
What Is a Wave?	39	(1)
Progressive Waves	40	(2)
Impulsive Waves; Reflection	42	(2)
Superposition and Interference	44	(2)
Sound Waves	46	(2)
Wave Propagation in Two and Three Dimensions	48	(1)
The Doppler Effect	49	(2)
Reflection	51	(1)
Refraction	52	(1)
Diffraction	53	(1)
Interference	53	(2)
Summary	55	(5)
Resonance	60	(17)
Resonance of a Mass-Spring Vibrator	60	(1)
Phase of Driven Vibrations	61	(1)
Standing Waves on a String	62	(2)
Partials, Harmonics, and Overtones	64	(1)
Open and Closed Pipes	65	(2)
Acoustic Impedance	67	(1)
Helmholtz Resonator	67	(1)
Singing Rods	68	(1)
More Examples of Resonance: Can a Singer Break a Wineglass?	69	(1)
Sympathetic Vibrations: Soundboards	70	(1)
Summary	71	(6)
II PERCEPTION AND MEASUREMENT OF SOUND	77	(114)
Hearing	79	(20)
Range of Hearing	79	(2)
Structure of the Ear	81	(5)
Signal Processing in the Auditory System	86	(2)
Critical Bands	88	(1)
Binaural Hearing and Localization	89	(1)
Measuring Sensations: Psychophysics	90	(1)
Logarithms in Sound and Music	91	(3)
Subjective Attributes of Sound	94	(1)
Summary	95	(4)
Sound Pressure, Power, and Loudness	99	(22)
Decibels	99	(1)
Sound Intensity Level	100	(3)
Sound Pressure Level	103	(2)
Multiple Sources	105	(1)
Loudness Level	106	(2)
Loudness of Pure Tones: Sones	108	(1)
Loudness of Complex Tones: Critical Bands	109	(1)
Loudness of Combined Sounds	110	(2)
Musical Dynamics and Loudness	112	(1)
Masking	113	(2)
Loudness Reduction by Masking	115	(1)
Loudness and Duration: Impulsive Sounds and Adaptation	115	(1)
Summary	116	(5)
Pitch and Timbre	121	(29)
Pitch Scales	121	(2)
Pitch Discrimination	123	(1)
Pitch of Pure Tones	123	(3)
Pitch of Complex Tones: Virtual Pitch	126	(1)
Seebeck's Siren and Ohm's Law: A Historical Note	127	(1)
Theories of Pitch: Place Pitch versus Periodicity Pitch	128	(5)
Absolute Pitch	133	(1)
Pitch Standards	134	(1)
Timbre or Tone Quality	135	(1)
Fourier Analysis of Complex Tones	136	(4)
Timbre and Dynamic Effects: Envelope and Duration	140	(1)
Vibrato	141	(1)
Blend of Complex Tones	142	(2)
Summary	144	(6)
Combination Tones and Harmony	150	(24)
Linear Superposition	150	(1)
Phase Angle	151	(2)
Combination of Two Simple Harmonic Motions	153	(1)
Pure Tones with Slightly Different Frequencies: Beats	154	(2)
The Musical Staff: Musicians' Graph Paper	156	(1)
Combination Tones	157	(2)
Modulation of One Tone by Another	159	(1)
Other Nonlinear Effects: Aural Harmonics and Summation Tones	160	(1)
Origin of Difference Tones	160	(1)
Consonance and Dissonance: Musical Intervals	161	(4)
Effect of Phase on Timbre	165	(2)
Beats of Mistuned Consonances	167	(1)
The Central Nervous System: Autocorrelation and Cross-Correlation	168	(1)
Cerebral Dominance	169	(1)
Summary	169	(5)
Musical Scales and Temperament	174	(17)
Scale, Tuning, Temperament, and Intonation	175	(1)
The Pythagorean Scale	176	(2)
Meantone Temperament	178	(1)
The Scale of Just Intonation	178	(3)
Equal Temperament	181	(4)
Comparison of Scales	185	(1)
Other Meantone Temperaments	186	(1)
Intonation	187	(1)
Summary	187	(4)
III MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS	191	(144)
String Instruments	193	(32)
Construction of the Violin	194	(1)
Vibrations of a Plucked String	195	(2)
Vibrations of a Bowed String	197	(5)
Vibrations of the Violin Body	202	(1)
Tuning the Top and Back Plates	202	(4)
The Bridge	206	(1)
Other Bowed String Instruments	206	(1)
Music and Physics: A New Family of Fiddles	207	(1)
Construction of the Guitar	208	(2)
The Guitar as a Vibrating System	210	(1)
Vibrations of the Top Plate, Back Plate, and Air Cavity	211	(1)
Resonances of the Guitar Body	212	(2)
Sound Radiation	214	(2)
The Guitar: A Developing Instrument	216	(1)
The Electric Guitar	217	(2)
Strings, Frets, and Compensation	219	(1)
Summary	220	(5)
Brass Instruments	225	(21)
Instruments of the Brass Family	225	(2)
Oscillations in a Pipe	227	(1)
Pressure-Controlled Valves	228	(2)
The Bell and Mouthpiece	230	(3)
Valves and Slides: Filling in Between the Modes	233	(2)
The French Horn	235	(1)
The Trombone	236	(1)
Tuba, Baritone, and Fluegelhorn	236	(1)
The Spectra of Brass Instruments	236	(2)
Shock Waves	238	(1)
Transients	238	(1)
Mutes	238	(1)
Wall Material	239	(1)
Performance Technique	240	(1)
Summary	241	(5)
Woodwind Instruments	246	(26)
How a Pipe-Reed System Vibrates	247	(3)
Tone Holes	250	(2)
Bore Types	252	(1)
The Clarinet	252	(3)
Registers and Register Holes	255	(2)
Radiated Sound	257	(1)
The Double Reeds	258	(2)
The Saxophone	260	(1)
Efficiency and Performance Technique	261	(1)
Oscillating Air Streams and Whistles	262	(2)
The Flute	264	(1)
Other Flutes	265	(1)
The Recorder	266	(1)
Organ Pipes	267	(1)
Summary	267	(5)
Percussion Instruments	272	(38)
Vibrations of Bars	273	(2)
Rectangular Bars: The Glockenspiel	275	(1)
The Marimba, Xylophone, and Vibes	276	(3)
Mallets	279	(1)
Chimes	280	(2)
Triangles	282	(1)
Vibrations of Membranes	283	(1)
Timpani	284	(3)
Bass Drum	287	(1)
Snare Drum	288	(2)
Other Drums	290	(2)
Vibrations of Plates	292	(1)
Cymbals	293	(4)
Gongs and Tamtams	297	(1)
Steelpans	297	(3)
Sound Spectra	300	(2)
Bells and Carillons	302	(2)
Handbells	304	(1)
Summary	305	(5)
Keyboard Instruments	310	(25)
Construction of the Piano	310	(3)
Piano Strings	313	(2)
The Tuning of Unisons	315	(1)
Hammer-String Interaction	315	(1)
The Soundboard	316	(1)
Piano Sound	317	(1)
The Clavichord	317	(2)
The Harpsichord	319	(1)
The Harp	320	(2)
The Pipe Organ: Its Construction	322	(1)
Organ Pipes	323	(3)
Pipe Scaling	326	(1)
Sound Radiation From Flue Pipes	327	(1)
Reed Pipes	328	(1)
Tuning and Voicing Organ Pipes	328	(2)
Summary	330	(5)
IV THE HUMAN VOICE	335	(63)
Speech Production	337	(19)
The Vocal Organs	337	(1)
The Larynx and the Vocal Folds	338	(3)
The Vocal Tract	341	(2)
Articulation of Speech	343	(2)
Resonances of the Vocal Tract: Formants	345	(2)
Models of the Vocal Tract	347	(3)
Studies of the Vocal Tract	350	(1)
Prosodic Features of Speech	351	(1)
Summary	351	(5)
Speech Recognition, Analysis, and Synthesis	356	(17)
The Analysis of Speech	356	(1)
The Recognition of Vowels	357	(2)
The Recognition of Consonants	359	(4)
Filtered Speech and Noisy Environments	363	(2)
The Synthesis of Speech	365	(1)
Speech Coding and Compression	366	(1)
Speech Recognition by Computers	367	(1)
Speaker Identification by Speech Spectrograms: Voiceprints	368	(1)
Summary	369	(4)
Singing	373	(25)
Formants and Pitch	373	(1)
Differences Between Spoken and Sung Vowels	374	(4)
Formant Tuning by Sopranos	378	(2)
Breathing and Air Flow	380	(2)
Subglottal Pressures in Singing	382	(2)
Registers, Voices, and Muscles	384	(4)
Other Factors Influencing the Spectra of Sung Notes	388	(2)
Choir Singing	390	(1)
Popular Singing and Other Styles	391	(2)
Summary	393	(5)
V ELECTROACOUSTICS	398	(125)
Electronic Circuits	399	(24)
Direct Current	399	(4)
Electrical Energy and Power	403	(1)
Alternating Current	404	(2)
Transformers	406	(1)
Electrical Resonance	407	(2)
Filters	409	(3)
Active Devices	412	(2)
Amplifiers	414	(2)
Operational Amplifiers	416	(1)
Oscillators and Function Generators	416	(1)
Power Supplies	417	(1)
Summary	418	(5)
Loudspeakers	423	(26)
Loudspeakers as Transducers	424	(1)
Structure of Dynamic Loudspeakers	424	(2)
Electromagnetic Drivers	426	(3)
Mechanical and Electrical Characteristics	429	(1)
Baffles and Enclosures	430	(1)
Air Suspension Low-Frequency Loudspeakers	431	(1)
Equivalent Electrical Circuit for a Loudspeaker	432	(1)
Vented Boxes: Bass-Reflex Enclosures	433	(4)
Horn Loudspeakers	437	(1)
Multispeaker Systems	438	(2)
Other Loudspeaker Types	440	(1)
Recent Trends in Loudspeakers	441	(1)
Loudspeaker Efficiency	441	(1)
Loudspeaker Distortion	442	(1)
Earphones (Headphones)	443	(1)
Summary	444	(5)
Microphones, Amplifiers, and Tuners	449	(21)
Microphones as Transducers	449	(4)
Microphone Pickup Patterns	453	(2)
Microphone Impedance	455	(1)
Microphone Sensitivity	455	(1)
Amplifiers	456	(2)
Distortion	458	(1)
Amplifier Power and Distortion	459	(2)
AM/FM Tuners	461	(2)
Stereo Broadcasting	463	(1)
AV Receivers: Surround Sound	463	(3)
Summary	466	(4)
Digital Computers and Techniques	470	(26)
What Is a Computer?	470	(1)
Binary Data	470	(2)
Number Representations	472	(2)
Organization of a Computer	474	(1)
The CPU	475	(1)
Memory	476	(1)
Input and Output (I/O)	477	(1)
Computer Buses	478	(1)
Computer Programming	479	(1)
Digital Signals	480	(1)
Pulse-Code Modulation	481	(1)
The Sampling Theorem	482	(1)
Quantization	483	(1)
Quantization Error	483	(1)
Aliasing	484	(3)
Phase Distortion	487	(1)
Oversampling	487	(1)
Dithering	488	(1)
Companding	489	(2)
Summary	491	(5)
Sound Recording	496	(27)
The Origins of Sound Recording	496	(1)
Stereophonic Disk Recording	497	(1)
Magnetic Tape Recording	498	(2)
Tape Speed and Frequency Response	500	(2)
Bias and Equalization	502	(1)
Tape Noise	503	(1)
Digital Tape Recording	504	(2)
Digital Audiotape Recorders for Home Use	506	(1)
Digital Multitrack Recording	507	(1)
Hard-Disk Recording	508	(1)
Compact Disc Digital Audio	509	(4)
Recordable CDS	513	(1)
MiniDiscs	514	(2)
DVD	516	(1)
DVD-Audio	517	(1)
Solid-State Memory Recording	517	(1)
Summary	518	(5)
VI THE ACOUSTICS OF ROOMS	523	(68)
Auditorium Acoustics	525	(21)
Sound Propagation Outdoors and Indoors	525	(1)
Direct, Early, and Reverberant Sound	526	(2)
Direct and Early Sound: The Precedence Effect	528	(1)
Reverberant Sound	529	(2)
Calculation of the Reverberation Time	531	(1)
Air Absorption	532	(2)
Criteria for Good Acoustics	534	(1)
Concert Halls	535	(3)
Background Noise	538	(1)
Avery Fisher Hall: A Case Study	539	(1)
Variable Acoustics	540	(1)
Churches	541	(1)
Classrooms	541	(1)
Summary	542	(4)
Electronic Reinforcement of Sound	546	(19)
Sound Sources in a Room	546	(1)
Sound Fields	547	(2)
Power Considerations	549	(2)
Loudspeaker Placement	551	(1)
Loudspeaker Directivity	551	(3)
Acoustic Feedback	554	(1)
Equalization	555	(2)
Time Delay	557	(1)
Enhancement of Reverberation	557	(2)
Microphone Placement and Mixing	559	(1)
Reinforcement for the Hearing Impaired	560	(1)
Outdoor Sound Systems	560	(1)
Summary	561	(4)
Small Rooms, Home Listening Rooms, and Recording Studios	565	(26)
Acoustics of Small Rooms	565	(3)
Room Proportions	568	(1)
Sound Images From Multiple Sources	569	(4)
What Is High-Fidelity Sound?	573	(2)
Single- and Multichannel Sound-Reproducing Systems	575	(1)
Stereophonic Sound	576	(2)
The Sound Field in Listening Rooms	578	(1)
Sound Diffusors	579	(2)
Sound Absorption	581	(1)
Home Theaters	582	(1)
Sound-Recording Studios	583	(2)
Control Rooms	585	(1)
Summary	586	(5)
VII ELECTRONIC MUSIC TECHNOLOGY	591	(110)
Electronic Music Technology and its Origins	593	(18)
Contemporary Music Technology	594	(1)
Ancient Precursors	595	(1)
Early Sound Recording	596	(1)
Understanding Electricity	597	(1)
The Age of Electronics	598	(1)
Early Electronic Music	598	(2)
Electrical Organs	600	(3)
Modern Electronics	603	(3)
Music Technology Today	606	(1)
Summary	607	(4)
Analog Electronic Music	611	(23)
The Elements of Electronic Music	611	(2)
Musique Concrete: The Conceptual Basis	613	(1)
Musique Concrete: The Technological Basis	614	(1)
Elektronische Musik: The Conceptual Basis	615	(1)
Elektronische Musik: The Technological Basis	616	(1)
Tape Music	617	(1)
Early Electronic Music Synthesizers	617	(1)
The Mark II Electronic Music Synthesizer	618	(1)
Voltage Control	619	(1)
Modules and Patches	620	(5)
Control Voltage Characteristics	625	(1)
Other Modules	626	(2)
Other Controllers	628	(1)
Digital Control and the Groove System	628	(3)
Summary	631	(3)
Digital Audio Signal Processing	634	(20)
Digital Audio-Signal Processing	634	(1)
Digital Signal Processing and Mathematics	634	(1)
The Time Domain	635	(1)
The Frequency Domain	636	(3)
The Discrete Fourier Transform	639	(2)
The Fast Fourier Transform	641	(1)
Convolution	641	(2)
Digital Filtering	643	(1)
The z-Transform	644	(2)
Filter Coefficients	646	(1)
The Transfer Function	647	(1)
Poles and Zeros	647	(1)
FIR and IIR Filters	648	(1)
Processing Audio Signals	649	(2)
Summary	651	(3)
Computer Music and Virtual Acoustics	654	(47)
Computer Music	654	(5)
Sound Synthesis Methods	659	(1)
Additive Synthesis	659	(3)
Subtractive Synthesis	662	(2)
Nonlinear Synthesis	664	(6)
Physical Modeling Synthesis	670	(4)
Digital Music Synthesizers	674	(3)
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)	677	(2)
Samplers	679	(5)
Real-Time Software Synthesis	684	(1)
Spatialization	685	(6)
Digital Audio Compression	691	(4)
Digital Audio and the Internet	695	(1)
Summary	696	(5)
VIII ENVIRONMENTAL NOISE	701	(50)
Noise in the Environment	703	(14)
Sound Power and Mechanical Power	703	(1)
Noise Levels	704	(1)
Sound Propagation Outdoors	705	(3)
Flow Noise	708	(1)
Machinery Noise	709	(1)
Indoor Noise	710	(1)
Motor Vehicles	711	(2)
Railroads and Aircraft	713	(1)
Summary	714	(3)
The Effects of Noise on People	717	(14)
Temporary Hearing Loss	717	(3)
Permanent Hearing Loss	720	(1)
Ear Damage	721	(1)
Hearing Protectors	722	(1)
Speech Interference	723	(2)
Interference with Sleep	725	(1)
Other Psychological Effects	726	(1)
The Physiological Effects of Noise	727	(1)
Summary	727	(4)
The Control of Noise	731	(20)
Analyzing a Noise Problem: Source-Path-Receiver	731	(1)
Noise Regulations	732	(1)
Exposure to Occupational Noise	733	(1)
Product Labeling	734	(1)
Walls and Floors	734	(3)
Barriers---Indoors and Outdoors	737	(2)
Enclosures	739	(1)
Sound Absorbers	740	(2)
Heating and Air Conditioning Noise	742	(1)
Aircraft Noise	742	(3)
Supersonic Aircraft	745	(1)
Ultrasound and Infrasound	746	(1)
Active Noise Control	746	(1)
Summary	747	(4)
Appendix A	751	(21)
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises	772	(3)
Index	775