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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice, 4th Edition focuses on the relationship between the scientific study of speech production and perception and the application of the material to the effective evaluation and treatment of communication disorders. Theoretical material is presented first, followed by clinical application chapters highlighting specific disorders. The organization of chapters in the new edition now more closely follows the speech subsystems approach, beginning with basic acoustics, and moving on to the respiratory system, phonatory system, articulatory/resonatory system, auditory system, and nervous system. As in previous editions, the book concludes with information on classic and current models and theories of speech production and perception. New and revised full color illustrations and larger spectrograms supplement the concepts presented by clearly depicting scientific and anatomical material and ensuring understanding of the links between the underlying science and human communicative behavior.

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Dr. Carole Ferrand earned her BA in English at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, and her MS and PhD in Communication Sciences and Disorders from the Pennsylvania State University. She teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in speech science, and a graduate level course in Voice Disorders. Her research focuses on acoustic attributes of normal and disordered speech production. In addition to Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice, she is the author of the textbook, Voice Disorders: Scope of Theory and Practice. When not writing books, Dr. Ferrand enjoys reading historical fiction, a capella singing, and playing banjo.

BRIEF TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: The Nature of Sound

CHAPTER 2: The Respiratory System

CHAPTER 3: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Respiratory Disorders

CHAPTER 4: The Phonatory/Laryngeal System

CHAPTER 5: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Phonatory Disorders

CHAPTER 6: The Articulatory/Resonatory System

CHAPTER 7: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Articulatory and Resonance Disorders

CHAPTER 8: The Auditory System

CHAPTER 9: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Disorders Related to Hearing Impairment

CHAPTER 10: The Nervous System

CHAPTER 11: Clinical Application: Brain Imaging in the Evaluation and Treatment of Disorders of the Nervous System

CHAPTER 12: Models and Theories of Speech Production and Perception

DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword xiii

Preface xv

Acknowledgments xvii

Introduction xix

Chapter 1: The Nature of Sound 1

International System of Units 2

Basic Physics Concepts 3

Mass, Force, Weight, Volume, and Density 3

Speed, Velocity, Momentum, Acceleration, (and Inertia 5

Elasticity and Stiffness 5

Work, Energy, Power, and Intensity 5

Pressure 6

Sound: Changes in Air Pressure 7

Behavior of Air 7

Air Pressure 7

Airflow 8

Relationship between Air Pressure, Air Volume, and Air Density 8

The Nature of Sound 9

Why Molecules Keep Vibrating: Elasticity, Inertia, and Friction 11

Sound Propagation 13

Wave Motion of Sound 13

Longitudinal Versus Transverse Waves 13

Mass/Spring System 15

Simple Harmonic Motion 15

Frequency, Period, Wavelength, Velocity, and Amplitude 16

Visually Depicting Sound Waves: Waveforms 18

Pure Tones and Complex Sounds 21

Pure Tones 21

Complex Sounds 21

Periodic Versus Aperiodic Complex Waves 21

Visually Depicting Sound Waves: Spectra 23

Sound Absorption, Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction 24

Constructive and Destructive Interference 28

Attributes of Sounds 31

Frequency and Pitch 31

Frequency: Human Range of Hearing 32

Amplitude, Intensity, and Loudness 32

Decibel Scale 34

Logarithms and Ratios 34

Perception on the dB Scale 36

Advantages of the Decibel Scale 37

Applications of the Decibel Scale 38

Resonance 39

Acoustic Resonance 42
Tube Resonance and Standing Waves 44
Acoustic Resonators as Filters 47
Bandwidth 48
Cutoff Frequencies 49
Resonance Curves 49
Parameters of a Filter 49
Types of Filters 50

Summary 53

Review Exercises 54

Chapter 2: The Respiratory System 55

Pulmonary Apparatus 55

Bronchial Tree 56

Chest Wall 59

Muscles of Respiration 62

Accessory Muscles of Respiration 62

Muscles of the Abdomen 62

Pleural Linkage 64

Moving Air Into and Out of the Lungs 66

Inhalation 66

Exhalation 67

Rate of Breathing 67

Lung Volumes and Capacities 68

Resting Expiratory Level 69

Lung Volumes 69

Tidal Volume 70

Inspiratory Reserve Volume 70

Expiratory Reserve Volume 71

Residual Volume 71

Dead Air 72

Lung Capacities 72

Vital Capacity 72

Functional Residual Capacity 72

Inspiratory Capacity 72

Total Lung Capacity 73

Differences between Breathing for Life and Breathing for Speech 75

Location of Air Intake 76

Ratio of Time for Inhalation Versus (Exhalation 77

Volume of Air Inhaled and Exhaled (per Cycle 77

Muscle Activity for Exhalation 78

Chest Wall Shape 79

Breathing Patterns for Speech 80

Speech Breathing for Isolated Vowels and Connected Speech 82

Changes in Speech Breathing Over the Life Span 83

Features of Speech Breathing in Children 83

Features of Speech Breathing in Older Adults 84

Summary 86

Review Exercises 87

Chapter 3: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Respiratory Disorders 88

Measurement of Respiratory Variables 88

Pulmonary Function Testing 89

Respiratory Kinematic Analysis 92

Air Pressures 94

Airflow 95

Classification of Respiratory Problems 96

Symptoms of Respiratory Disorders 97

Respiratory Function and Speech Production in Selected Disorders 98

Principles of Clinical Management of Speech Breathing Disorders 98

Neurological Disorders 99

Parkinson’s Disease 99
Cerebellar Disease 101
Cervical Spinal Cord Injury 102
Cerebral Palsy 103
Mechanical Ventilation 104
Voice Disorders 106
Stuttering 108
Asthma 111
Paradoxical Vocal Fold Motion 113

Summary 115

Review Exercises 115

Integrative Case Studies 116

Chapter 4: The Phonatory/Laryngeal System 118

Laryngeal Skeleton 118

Bones, Cartilages, and Membranes 118

Joints of the Larynx 123

Valves within the Larynx 127

Aryepiglottic Folds 127

False Vocal Folds 127

True Vocal Folds 127

Cover–Body Model 129

Glottis 130

Muscles of the Larynx 130

Extrinsic Muscles 130

Intrinsic Muscles 131

Myoelastic–Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation 137

Models of Vocal Fold Vibration 138

Features of Vocal Fold Vibration 139

Changes in the Phonatory/Laryngeal System Over the Life Span 144

Infancy and Childhood 144

Puberty 144

Adulthood 145

Vocal Quality 147

Normal Voice Quality 148

Abnormal Voice Qualities 149

Vocal Registers 151

Physiologic and Acoustic Characteristics of Registers 152

Use of Different Registers in Singing and Speaking 153

Summary 154

Review Exercises 154

Chapter 5: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Phonatory Disorders 155

Measurement of Phonatory Variables 155

Acoustic Analysis 155

Perturbation Measures 160

Noise Measures 162

Laryngeal Visualization Methods 163

Electroglottography 163

EGG and Register 167

EGG Slope Quotients 167

Techniques for Visualizing the Larynx 170

Advantages of Acoustic and Visual Analysis of Phonatory Function 174

Evaluation and Treatment of Communication Disorders Involving the Phonatory System 176

Neurological Disorders 176

Benign Mucosal Lesions 181

Laryngeal Cancer 183

Hearing Impairment 186

Transsexual Voice 187

Stuttering 188

Summary 191

Review Exercises 192

Integrative Case Studies 192

Chapter 6: The Articulatory/Resonatory System 195

Articulators of the Vocal Tract 195

Oral Cavity 196

Lips 197

Mandible 198

Maxilla 199

Teeth 200

Hard Palate 203

Soft Palate 203

Tongue 207

Pharynx 211

Muscles of the Pharynx 212

Nasal Cavities 213

Valves of the Vocal Tract 214

Traditional Classification System of Consonants and Vowels 215

Place of Articulation of English (Consonants 215

Manner of Articulation of English (Consonants 216

Voicing 221

Vowel Classification 221

Vocal Tract Resonance 223

Characteristics of the Vocal Tract Resonator 224

Source-Filter Theory of Vowel Production 226

Formant Frequencies Related to Oral and Pharyngeal Volumes 228

Vowel Formant Frequencies 231

F ₁/F ₂ Plots 233

Spectrographic Analysis 234

Narrowband and Wideband Spectrograms 235

Relationship Between Articulation and Spectrographic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants 235

Vowels 236

Diphthongs 236

Nasals 238

Glides 239

Liquids 239

Stops 240

Fricatives 244

Affricates 246

The Production of Speech Sounds in Context 246

Coarticulation 247

Speaking Rate 249

Suprasegmentals 249

Summary 253

Review Exercises 253

Chapter 7: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Articulatory and Resonance Disorders 255

Articulation, Intelligibility, and Instrumental Measurement 255

Ultrasound 256

Electropalatography and Glossometry 257

Magnetic Resonance Imaging 258

Electromagnetic Articulography 258

Evaluation and Treatment of Communication Disorders Involving Articulation and Resonation 260

Dysarthria/Apraxia 260

Hearing Impairment 267

Cochlear Implantation 270

Speech Sound Disorders 272

Cleft Palate 274

Stuttering 275

Resonance Problems 76

Summary 278

Review Exercises 278

Integrative Case Studies 279

Chapter 8: The Auditory System 282

Anatomy of the Ear 282

Outer Ear 282

Tympanic Membrane 284

Middle Ear 284

Inner Ear 288

Perception of Speech 293

Segmentation Problem 293

Role of Redundancy in Speech (Perception 294

Instrumental Analysis of Vowel and Consonant Perception 294

Perception of Vowels and Diphthongs 295

Formant Frequency Relationships 295

Diphthongs 297

Consonants 298

Categorical Perception 298

Multiple Acoustic Cues 299

Influence of Coarticulation 299

Perception of Consonants 300

Liquids 300

Glides 300

Nasals 300

Stops 301

Fricatives 303

Affricates 303

Summary 304

Review Exercises 304

Chapter 9: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Disorders Related to Hearing Impairment 305

Types of Hearing Loss 305

Diagnosis of Hearing Impairment 306

Immittance Audiometry 306

Tympanometry 307

Static-Acoustic Middle Ear Admittance 311

Acoustic Reflex Testing 311

Otoacoustic Emissions Testing 312

Auditory Brain Stem Response Testing 313

Hearing Loss and Speech Perception 314

Clinical Application 314

Phoneme Recognition in Speakers with Hearing Loss 315

Acoustic Cues Used in Phoneme (Recognition 316

Vowel Perception 316

Consonant Perception 317

Cochlear Implants 317

Clinical Application 320

Otitis Media and Speech Perception 320

Language and Reading Disability and Speech Perception 321

Temporal Processing Problems 322

Developmental Dyslexia and Speech Perception 324

Articulatory Problems and Speech Perception 324

Clinical Application 326

Summary 326

Review Exercises 327

Integrative Case Studies 327Chapter 10

Chapter 10: The Nervous System 328

Brain Tissue 329

Glial Cells 329

Neurons 330

Neuronal Function 333

Neurotransmission 333

Central and Peripheral Nervous (Systems 338

Central Nervous System 339

Functional Brain Anatomy 342

Cortex 342

Cortical Connections 344

Lobes of the Brain 345

Subcortical Areas of the Brain 350

Basal Nuclei 350

Thalamus 352

Hypothalamus 353

Brain Stem 354

Midbrain 355

Pons 355

Medulla 355

Cerebellum 356

Spinal Cord 357

Spinal Nerves 361

Cranial Nerves 362

CN V: Trigeminal 363

CN VII: Facial 365

CN VIII: Vestibulocochlear 365

CN IX: Glossopharyngeal 365

CN X: Vagus 365

CN XII: Hypoglossal 367

Blood Supply to the Brain 368

Motor Control Systems Involved in Speech Production 369

Motor Cortex 370

Upper and Lower Motor Neurons 372

Direct and Indirect Systems 375

Motor Units 375

Principals of Motor Control 378

Role of Feedback and Feedforward in Speech Motor Control 378

Role of Sensory Information in Speech Motor Control 379

Efference Copy 379

Summary 380

Review Exercises 380

Chapter 11: Clinical Application: Brain Imaging in the Evaluation and Treatment of Disorders of the Nervous System 381

Techniques for Imaging Brain (Structure 382

Computerized Tomography 382

Magnetic Resonance Imaging 383

Techniques for Imaging Brain Function 384

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 384

Positron Emission Tomography 385

Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography 385

Electroencephalography and Evoked Potentials 386

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 388

Use of Brain Imaging Techniques in Communication Disorders 390

Stuttering 390

Stroke 391

Parkinson’s Disease 392

Multiple Sclerosis 393

Alzheimer’s Disease 394

Summary 395

Review Exercises 395

Integrative Case Studies 396

Chapter 12: Models and Theories of Speech Production and Perception 397

Models and Theories 398

Models 398

Theories 399

Issues Related to Organization and Regulation of Speech Motor Control 400

The Serial-Order Issue 400

Degrees of Freedom 401

Context-Sensitivity Problem 401

Models and Theories of Speech Production 401

Dynamic Systems Models 401

Connectionist Models 402

Spatial and Articulatory Target Models 402

Feedback and Feedforward Models 404

The DIVA Model 405

Speech Perception 406

Specialization of Speech Perception 406

Infant Perception 407

Models and Theories of Speech Perception 408

Acoustic Invariance Theory 408

Direct Realism 409

TRACE Model 409

Logogen Theory 410

Cohort Theory 410

Fuzzy Logical Model of Perception 410

Native Language Magnet Theory 411

Motor Theory 411

Summary 413

Review Exercises 414

Glossary 415

References 431

Index 459

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