Helen Cowie is Research Professor and Director of the UK Observatory for the Promotion of Non-Violence at the University of Surret in the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences.
Mark Blades is Senior Lecturer in Psychology at the University of Sheffield.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
PART I THEORIES AND METHODS
CHAPTER 1 Studying Development
Development Observed
What is ‘Development’?
Baltes’s Conceptualization of Life-Span Development
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model of Human Development
Obtaining Information about Behavior and Development
What Degree of Control?
Recording Data
Reliability and Validity
Participant Characteristics
Children/Young People as Researchers
Working With the Data: Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
Objectivity and Bias
Ethical Issues
What Implications does Psychological Knowledge have for Society?
The Rights of Children
The Well-being of Children
The Scientific Status of Psychology
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 2 Biological and Cultural Theories of Development
Genetics and the Groundplan for Development
Twin Studies
Adoption Studies
Genes, and Shared and Non-Shared Environment
Identifying Genes and the Human Genome Project
Chromosomal Abnormalities
Down Syndrome
The Brain and Developmental Neuroscience
How Behavior Develops: Nature and Nurture
Birdsong: An Example of Behavioral Development
Rigidity and Flexibility
Imprinting and the Concept of Sensitive Periods
Individual and Social Learning Processes
Social Learning, Tradition and Culture
Communication Systems in Mammals
Teaching
Thinking in Primates
The Evolution of High Intelligence
The Evolution of ‘Mindreading’ and of Metarepresentational Thought
Apes, Humans, and Culture
Evolution and Human Behavior
Evolutionary Theory
Sociobiology and Human Behavior
Box 2.1: Parent-offspring weaning conflicts among the Bofi farmers and foragers of Central Africa
Evolutionary Psychology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
Criticisms of the Evolutionary Approach
Culture and Development
Cultural-Ecological Models
Box 2.2: Development through participation in sociocultural activity
Social Constructionist Approaches
Deconstructing Developmental Psychology
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
PART II PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH
CHAPTER 3 Prenatal Development and Birth
From Conception to Birth
Germinal Stage
Embryonic Stage
Fetal Stage
Sex Hormones and Male-Female Differentiation
Fetal Learning
Box 3.1: Newborn and fetal response to the human voice
Prenatal Risks
Pregnancy Sickness
The Nature of Birth
Interaction Immediately after Birth
Breastfeeding
Premature and Low Birthweight Babies
Box 3.2: Cognitive status, language attainment and prereading skills of 6-year-old very preterm children and their peers: the Bavarian longitudinal study
Early Social Behavior and Social Interactions
Behaviors that Operate Primarily in Social Situations
Behaviors to which Social Responses are given
An Ability to Learn
An Enjoyment of Contingent Responding by Others
Imitation
The Respective Roles of Infant and Caregiver
Very Early Bonding: The Work of Klaus and Kennell
Temperament
The Millennium Cohort Study (MCS): Patterns of Infant Care in the UK at 9 Months
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
PART III THE SOCIAL WORLD OF THE CHILD
CHAPTER 4 Parents and Families
The Development of Attachment Relationships
Who are Attachments Made With?
The Security of Attachment
Implications of Infant Attachment Security
Is the Strange Situation Valid Cross-Culturally?
Box 4.1: Infant-mother attachment among the Dogon of Mali
Why do Infants Develop Certain Attachment Types?
Disorganized Attachment and Unresolved Attachment Representations
Attachment beyond Infancy and Internal Working Models
The Adult Attachment Interview
Are Attachment Types Stable over Time?
Are Attachment Types Stable over Generations?
Attachment Theory as a Paradigm
Bowlby’s ‘Maternal Deprivation’ Hypothesis
Box 4.2: The effect of early institutional rearing on the behavior problems and affectional
relationships of 4-year-old children
Care Outside the Family: Childminding and Day Care
The NICHD Longitudinal Study
Day Care: An Overview
Fathers
Grandparents
Types of Family
Lesbian and Gay Parents
Styles of Parenting
Conflict between Parents
Divorce
Step-Parenting
Physical Punishment and the ‘Smacking’ Debate
Child Maltreatment and Abuse
The Assessment and Extent of Child Maltreatment and Abuse
The Effects of Child Maltreatment and Abuse
Causes of Child Maltreatment and Abuse
Models of Parenting
The Millennium Cohort Study (MCS): Patterns of Child Care in the UK at 3 and 5 Years
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 5 Siblings and the Peer Group
Early Peer Relationships
Siblings
Siblings in the Home Environment
Sibling Influences: Play, Teaching
Sibling Influences: Conflict and Social Comparison
Sibling Influences: Theory of Mind
Twins and Multiplets
Only Children
Family Size, Birth Order, Intelligence and Creative Lives
Peer Relationships in Preschool and School
Measuring Peer Relationships: Sociometry
The Concept of Sociometric Status
Box 5.1: Dimensions and types of social status: a cross-age perspective
A Social Information Processing Model
Rejected Children
Subtypes of Rejected Children
Popular and Controversial Children
Perceived Popularity
Neglected Children, Loneliness and Social Withdrawal
Friendship
What Characterizes Friendship?
Origins of Friendship
Conceptions of Friendship
Quality of Friendship
Box 5.2: Monthly instability in early adolescent friendship networks and depressive symptoms
The Importance of Peer Relations and Friendship
A Long-term Study of Correlates of Childhood Friendship and Sociometric Status
Enemies
Social Skills Training
Family and Peer Relationships
Group Socialization Theory and the Role of the Peer Group: How Important are Families?
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 6 Developing Emotional Intelligence and Social Awareness
How Children Begin to Understand Self and Others
The Infant’s Recognition of Self
How Children Categorize Others
Emotional Development
Producing Emotions
Recognizing Emotions in Others
Box 6.1: Changes in embarrassment as a function of age, sex and situation
Understanding Others’ Emotions, Desires and Beliefs
Developing Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Regulation
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
Box 6.2: Trait emotional intelligence and children’s peer relationships at school
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem
Early Sex Differences and the Development of Gender Identity
Sex Differences among Children in Western Societies
Awareness of Gender Identity and Sex Differences
Cross-cultural Studies
Theories of Sex-Role Identification
Biological Factors
Social Constructionist Approaches
Social Learning Theory
Cognitive-developmental Theory and Gender Schemas
Social Cognitive Theory
Maccoby’s Attempt at Synthesis
Children’s Knowledge and Beliefs about National Groups
Ethnic Awareness and Preference
Emphasizing Diversity
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 7 Play
Characteristics of Playful Behavior
Exploration and Play
The Development of Play
Play Types and Sequences
Physical Activity Play
Rough-and-tumble Play
Play with Objects
Fantasy and Sociodramatic Play
Box 7.1: Universal, developmental, and variable aspects of young children’s play: a cross-cultural comparison of pretending at home
Imaginary Companions
Language Play
War Toys and War Play
Video and Computer Games
Games with Rules
Factors Affecting Play
Play in Different Cultures
The Play Ethos
Play Theorists
The Benefits of Play: The Evidence
The Forms of Play
Correlational Studies
Box 7.2: Boys’ and girls’ uses of objects for exploration, play, and tools in early childhood
Experimental Studies
Play Therapy
The Benefits of Play: An Overview
Chapter Summary
Discussion points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 8 Children and Media
Children’s Use of the Media
Children and Television
Learning from Television
Sesame Street
Television in Relation to Other Activities
Influence of Television: Stereotypes
Influence of Television: Aggression and Violence
A Longitudinal, Correlational Study on Adolescents
A Two-site Longitudinal Study
Computer Games
Box 8.1: Media use and school achievement—boys at risk?
Advertising to Children
Unhealthy Food Products
Children’s Understanding of Advertisements
Product Placement and Advergames
Effects of Advertising on Children
Box 8.2: Exploring the relationship between children’s knowledge of text message abbreviations
and school literacy outcomes
Media Interventions
Restrictive Interventions
Co-viewing
Media Literacy
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 9 Helping Others and Moral Development
The Development of Prosocial Behavior
Experimental Studies
Observational Studies
Factors Influencing Prosocial Behavior in the Family and in School
Box 9.1: Child-rearing and children’s prosocial initiations towards victims of distress
Prosocial Behavior in School and the Peer Group
Peer Support Systems in Schools
Sex Differences in Prosocial Behavior
Box 9.2: The effects of primary division, student-mediated conflict resolution programs on playground aggression
Cross-cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior
The Development of Moral Reasoning
Piaget’s Theory
Kohlberg’s Theory
Early Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
Later Revisions of Kohlberg’s Theory
The Domain Approach to Moral Development
The Age of Moral Responsibility in the Context of Youth Crime
Can We Teach Moral Values?
Emotional Literacy
The PATHS Intervention
Results of the PATHS Intervention
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 10 Social Dominance, Aggression and Bullying
Dominance in Children
Social Dominance in Younger Children
Social Dominance in Older Children
Aggression in Children
Types and Typologies of Aggressive Behavior
Developmental Changes in Aggression
Is Aggression Maladaptive?
Box 10.1: Strategies of control, aggression and morality in preschoolers: an evolutionary perspective
Origins of Aggression: Genetic Factors and Temperament
Callous-unemotional Traits
Origins of Aggression: Parenting
Origins of Aggression: Peer Group Factors
Origins of Aggression: Neighborhood Factors
Delinquency
Interventions
Bullying in School
Finding out about Bullying
Types of Bullying
Cyberbullying
Incidence and Structural Features of Bullying
Causes of Bullying
Consequences of being Victimized
Interventions against Bullying
Large-scale School-based Intervention Programs
Box 10.2: Bully/victim problems among schoolchildren: basic facts and effects of a school-based intervention program
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
PART IV CHILDREN’S DEVELOPING MINDS
CHAPTER 11 Perception
Methods for Studying Infants’ Perception
Preference Technique
Box 11.1: Is face-processing species-specific in the first year of life?
Habituation
Conditioning
Summary of Methods
Visual Perception
Investigating Infants’ Visual Perception
Pattern Perception
Face Perception
Box 11.2: Effects of prior experience on 4.5-month-old infants’object segregation
Perceptual Constancies
Object Separation
Depth perception
Auditory Perception
Effects of the Environment on Perceptual Development
Intermodal Perception
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 12 Language
Main Areas of Language Development
Sequences in Language Development
Shared Rhythms
Babbling and Echolalia
First Words and Sentences
Box 12.1: Facilitating children’s syntax development
Gleitman’s Syntactic Bootstrapping Hypothesis
Barrett’s Multi-Route Model
From 3 to 5 Years
The Development of Discourse and Narrative Skills
Taking Account of One’s Own and Others’ Perspective
The Role of Fantasy and Make-Believe
Mastering the Convention of Different Genres
Pre-Reading and Pre-Writing Skills
Box 12.2: Categorizing sounds and learning to read: a causal connection
Dyslexia
Explanations of Dyslexia
Theories of Language Development
The Innate Basis of Language: Chomsky’s Views
Pinker and the Evidence from Pidgin and Creoles
Language and Cognition: A Piagetian Perspective
Cognitive-Functional Linguistics
Adult–Child Speech
A Continuing Debate
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 13 Cognition: Piaget’s Theory
Underlying Assumptions: Structure and Organization
The Stages of Cognitive Development
The Sensori-Motor Stage
Reinterpretations of Piaget: The Sensori-Motor Stage
The Pre-Operational Stage
The Pre-Conceptual Period
Box 13.1: Piaget’s mountains revisited: changes in the egocentric landscape
The Intuitive Period
Reinterpretations of Piaget: The Pre-Operational Stage
Box 13.2: Conservation accidents
The Concrete Operational Stage
Reinterpretations of Piaget: The Concrete Operational Stage
The Formal Operational Stage
Reinterpretations of Piaget: The Formal Operational Stage
Piaget’s Theory: An Overview
Educational Implications
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 14 Cognition: The Information Processing Approach
Information Processing Limitations
Stage-Like Performance in Information Processing
Problem-solving Strategies
Box 14.1: The origins of scientific reasoning
Attention
Memory Development
Encoding Strategies
Retrieval Strategies
How Do Memory Strategies Develop?
Metacognition
Knowledge and Memory Development
Constructive Memory and Knowledge Structures
Summary of Information Processing Approach
Children’s Eyewitness Research
Children’s Suggestibility
Box 14.2: The effects of stereotypes and suggestions on preschoolers’ reports
Why are Children Misled?
The Cognitive Interview
Achieving Best Evidence
The Effects of Stress on Children’s Recall
Summary of Eyewitness Research and Suggestibility
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 15 Children’s Understanding of Mind
The False-Belief Task
Box 15.1: Beliefs about beliefs: representations and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception
Children’s Knowledge of Mind Before About 4 Years of Age
Distinguishing Mental States in Language
Understanding the Relationship between Seeing and Knowing
Understanding the Appearance-Reality Distinction
Predicting Behavior
When is Theory of Mind Achieved?
Theory of Mind After 4 Years of Age
Theories about the Development of Understanding the Mind
Do Children with Autism Lack an Understanding of Other’s Minds?
Box 15.2: Domain specificity in conceptual development: neuropsychological evidence from autism
How Far Can a Deficit in Understanding Mental Representations Contribute to an Explanation of ASD?
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 16 Learning in a Social Context
The Challenge of Vygotsky
Individual Mental Functioning: Its Sociocultural Origins
Cole’s Work with the Kpelle
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Hedegaard’s Teaching Experiment
Language and Thought
The Impact of Bruner
Scaffolding in Practice
Box 16.1: Capturing and modeling the process of conceptual change
Guided Participation in Sociocultural Activity
Collective Argumentation
The Community of Inquiry
Implications for Education
Box 16.2: Mathematics in the streets and in schools
The Role of Peers as Tutors
Computer-Assisted Learning (CAL)
Is Synthesis Possible?
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 17 Intelligence and Attainment
The Development of Intelligence Tests
The First Tests
Revisions of the Binet-Simon Scale
Other Intelligence Scales
Reliability and Validity
Reliability
Validity
The Early Uses of Intelligence Tests
Concepts of Intelligence
Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence
Box 17.1: People’s conceptions of intelligence
Savants
Box 17.2: Calendar counting in ‘idiot savants’. How do they do it?
Intelligence in a Social-Cultural Context
The Use of Intelligence Tests
Children with Learning Difficulties
Gifted Children
Attainment Tests
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
CHAPTER 18 Deprivation and Enrichment: Risk and Resilience
Deprivation
Extreme Deprivation and Neglect
Feral Children
The Koluchova Twins
Genie
The Effects of Institutional Rearing on Children’s Development
Early Studies During and After World War II (1939–45)
Later Studies in Other Cultures
Romanian Adoptees: The English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study
Socially Disadvantaged Children
Social Disadvantage in the UK
The Impact of Racial Prejudice and Discrimination
Street Children
Growing up with Political Violence
Box 18.1: Children and political violence: an overview
Explanatory Models
The ‘Deficit’ and ‘Difference’ Models
Risk and Protective Factors
Risk-focused Intervention
Interventions: The Role of Families
Nurture Groups
Compensatory Education Programs in the USA
USA Compensatory Programs Evaluated
Box 18.2: Lasting effects of early education: a report from the Consortium of Longitudinal Studies
Compensatory Education Programs in the UK
Sure Start
A Continuing Debate
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
PART V ADOLESCENCE
CHAPTER 19 Adolescence
The Biological and Physical Changes of Puberty
Variations in Physical Maturation Rates
The Secular Trend in Age of Puberty
Theories Concerning Pubertal Timing
Psychological Effects of Puberty
Effects of Physical Changes
Box 19.1: The associations among perceived pubertal timing, parental relations and self-perception in Turkish adolescents
Effects of Hormones
Brain Development at Puberty
Effects of Cognitive Changes
Effects of Early and Late Maturation
Sexual and Romantic Development
Lesbian and Gay Adolescents
Adolescence as a Period of Turmoil, or ‘Storm and Stress’
Identity Development and the ‘Identity Crisis’
Conflicts with Parents
Mood Disruption
The ‘Isle of Wight’ Study
Relations with Peers and Risk-Taking Behaviors
Box 19.2: Cultural bases of risk behavior: Danish adolescents
Adolescence in Different Cultures
Margaret Mead and Samoa
Broad and Narrow Socialization
Historical Changes in Adolescent Behavior
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
Leisure Pursuits and ICT
Adolescent Mental Health
Chapter Summary
Discussion Points
Further Reading
References
Index
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