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Preface
Part One Overview of Argument
Chapter 1 Argument: An Introduction
What Do We Mean by Argument?
Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel
Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate
Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit
Louis W. Sullivan, M.D., Let the Facts Decide, Not Fear
The Defining Features of Argument
Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims
Argument Is Both a Process and a Product
Argument Combines Truth Seeking and Persuasion
Argument and the Problem of Truth
Chapter 2 Argument as Inquiry: Reading and Exploring
Finding Issues to Explore
Do Some Initial Brainstorming
Be Open to the Issues All Around You
Explore Ideas by Freewriting
Explore Ideas by Idea-Mapping
Explore Ideas by Playing the Believing and Doubting Game
Placing Texts in a Rhetorical Context
Genres of Argument
Cultural Contexts: Who Writes Arguments and Why?
Analyzing Rhetorical Context and Genre
Reading to Believe an Argument’s Claims
John Kavanaugh, Amnesty?
Summary Writing as a Way of Reading to Believe
Practicing Believing: Willing Your Own Belief in the Writer’s Views
Reading to Doubt
Thinking Dialectically
Questions to Stimulate Dialectic Thinking
Fred Reed, Why Blame Mexico?
Three Ways to Foster Dialectic Thinking
Writing Assignment: An Argument Summary or Formal Exploratory Essay
Reading
Michael Banks, Should the United States Grant Legal Status to Undocumented Immigrant Workers?
Part Two Writing Arguments
Chapter 3 The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons
The Classical Structure of Argument
Classical Appeals and the Rhetorical Triangle
Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument
Difference between an Issue Question and an Information Question
How to Identify an Issue Question
Difference between a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument
Pseudo-Arguments: Fanatical Believers and Fanatical Skeptics
Another Source of Pseudo-Arguments: Lack of Shared Assumptions
Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons
What Is a Reason?
Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses
Writing Assignment: An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements
Chapter 4 The Logical Structure of Arguments
An Overview of Logos: What Do We Mean by the “Logical Structure” of an Argument?
Formal Logic Versus Real World Logic
The Role of Assumptions
The Core of an Argument: The Enthymeme
Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The Toulmin System
Using Toulmin’s Schema to Determine a Strategy of Support
The Power of Audience-Based Reasons
Writing Assignment: Plan for the Details of an Argument
Chapter 5 Using Evidence Effectively
The Persuasive Use of Evidence
Apply the STAR Criteria to Evidence
Use Sources That Your Reader Trusts
Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence
Kinds of Evidence
Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing of Evidence
Examining Visual Arguments: Angle of Vision
Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence
Special Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence
Gathering Evidence
Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence
Gathering Data from Interviews
Gathering Data from Surveys or Questionnaires
Writing Assignment: A Microtheme or “Supporting Reasons” Argument
Carmen Tieu (student),“Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls”
Chapter 6 Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
Ethos and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview
How to Create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal to Credibility
How to Create Pathos: The Appeal to Belief and Emotions
Use Concrete Language
Use Specific Examples and Illustrations
Use Narratives
Choose Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations
Use Images for Emotional Appeal
Examining Visual Arguments: Appeals to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness of Arguments
How Audience-Based Reasons Enhance Logos, Ethos, and Pathos
Writing Assignment: Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based Reasons
Chapter 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views
One-Sided, Multisided, and Dialogic Arguments
Determining Your Audience’s Resistance to Your Views
Appealing to a Supportive Audience: One-Sided Argument
Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience: Classical Argument
Summarizing Opposing Views
Refuting Opposing Views
Strategies for Rebutting Evidence
Conceding to Opposing Views
Example of a Classical Argument
David Langley (student), ”Half-Criminals” or Urban Athletes: A Plea for Fair Treatment of Skateboarders
Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Dialogic Argument
Delayed-Thesis Argument as Both Exploration and Persuasion
Example of a Delay-Thesis Argument
Ross Douthat, “Islam in Two Americas”
A More Open-Ended Approach: Rogerian Argument
Rogerian Argument as Growth for the Writer
Rogerian Argument as Collaborative Negotiation
Example of a Rogerian Argument
Colleen Fontana (student), “An Open Letter to Robert Levy in Response to His Article ‘They Never Learn’”
Writing Assignment: A Classical Argument or a Rogerian Argument
Part 3 Analyzing Arguments
Chapter 8 Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically
Questions for Rhetorical Analysis
An Illustration of Rhetorical Analysis
Kathryn Jean Lopez, Egg Heads
A Rhetorical Analysis of “Egg Heads”
Writing Assignment: A Rhetorical Analysis
Generating Ideas for Your Rhetorical Analysis
Organizing Your Rhetorical Analysis
Readings
Ellen Goodman, Womb for Rent—for a Price
Zachary Stumps (student), A Rhetorical Analysis of Ellen Goodman’s “Wombs for Rent—for a Price”
Chapter 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments
Understanding Design Elements in Visual Argument
The Components of Visual Design
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Type and Spatial Elements
The Compositional Features of Photographs and Drawings
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Images
The Genres of Visual Argument
Posters and Fliers
Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements
Cartoons
Web Pages
Constructing Your Own Visual Argument
Using Information Graphics in Arguments
How Tables Contain a Variety of Stories
Using a Graph to Tell a Story
Incorporating Graphics into Your Argument
Writing Assignment: A Visual Argument Rhetorical Analysis, a Poster Argument, or a Microtheme Using Quantitative Graphics
Part 4 Arguments in Depth: Types of Claims
Chapter 10 An Introduction to the Types of Claims
An Overview of the Types of Claims 000
Using Claim Types to Focus an Argument and Generate Ideas: An Example
Making the Lasik Argument to Parents
Making the Lasik Argument to Insurance Companies
Hybrid Arguments: How Claim Types Work Together in Arguments
Some Examples of Hybrid Arguments
An Extended Example of a Hybrid Argument
Aaron Friedman, “All That Noise for Nothing”
Chapter 11 Definition and Resemblance Arguments
An Overview of Definition or Resemblance Arguments
Consequences of Categorical Claims
The Rule of Justice: Things in the Same Category Should Be Treated the Same Way
Types of Definition Arguments
Simple Categorical Arguments
Definition Arguments
Examining Visual Arguments: A Definition Claim
The Criteria–Match Structure of Definition Arguments
Developing the Criteria-Match Structure for a Definition Argument
Toulmin Framework for a Definition Argument
Kinds of Definitions
Aristotelian Definitions
Operational Definitions
Conducting the Criteria Part of a Definitional Argument
Approach 1: Research How Others Have Defined the Term
Approach 2: Create Your Own Extended Definition
Conducting the Match Part of a Definitional Argument
Types of Resemblance Arguments
Toulmin Framework for a Resemblance Argument
Arguments by Analogy
Arguments by Precedent
Writing Assignment: A Definition Argument
Exploring Ideas
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake
Organizing a Definition Argument
Questioning and Critiquing a Definition Argument
*Arthur Knopf (Student), “Is Milk a Health Food?”
Clay Bennett, “Just Emancipated” (editorial cartoon)
Beth Reis, “Toon Offensive”
Chapter 12 Causal Arguments
An Overview of Causal Arguments
Kinds of Causal Arguments
Toulmin Framework for a Causal Argument
Examining Visual Arguments: A Causal Claim
Two Methods for Arguing That One Event Causes Another
First Method: Explain the Causal Mechanism Directly
Second Method: Infer Causal Links Using Inductive Reasoning
Glossary of Terms Encountered in Causal Arguments
Writing Assignment: A Causal Argument
Exploring Ideas
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake
Organizing a Causal Argument
Questioning and Critiquing a Causal Argument
Reading
Julee Christianson (student), “Why Lawrence Summers Was Wrong” (APA-Format Research Paper)
Chapter 13 Evaluation and Ethical Arguments
An Overview of Evaluation Arguments
Criteria-Match Structure of Categorical Evaluations
Toulmin Framework for an Evaluation Argument
Conducting a Categorical Evaluation Argument
Developing Your Criteria
Making Your Match Argument
Examining Visual Arguments: An Evaluation Claim
An Overview of Ethical Arguments
Major Ethical Systems
Consequences as the Base of Ethics
Principles as the Base of Ethics
Conducting an Ethical Argument
Constructing a Principles-Based Argument
Constructing a Consequences-Based Argument
Common Problems in Making Evaluation Arguments
Writing Assignment: An Evaluation or Ethical Argument
Exploring Ideas
Organizing an Evaluation Argument
Revising Your Draft
Questioning and Critiquing an Evaluation Argument
Critiquing an Ethical Argument
Readings
*Christopher Moore (student), “Information Plus Satire”
*Christian Longo, “Giving Life after Death Row”
Chapter 14 Proposal Arguments
An Overview of Proposal Arguments
The Structure of Proposal Arguments
Toulmin Framework for a Proposal Argument
Special Concerns for Proposal Arguments
Developing a Proposal Argument
Convincing Your Readers That a Problem Exists
Showing the Specifics of Your Proposal
The Justification: Convincing Your Readers That Your Proposal Should Be Enacted
Proposal Arguments as Advocacy Posters or Advertisements
Examining Visual Arguments: A Proposal Claim
Using the Claim-Type Strategy to Develop a Proposal Argument
Using the “Stock Issues” Strategy to Develop a Proposal Argument
Writing Assignment: A Proposal Argument
Exploring Ideas
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake
Organizing a Proposal Argument
Designing a One-Page Advocacy Advertisement
Designing PowerPoint Slides or Other Visual Aids for a Speech
Questioning and Critiquing a Proposal Argument
Readings
Juan Vazquez (student), “Why the United States Should Adopt Nuclear Power” (MLA-format research paper)
*Sandy Wainscott (student), “Why MacDonalds Should Sell Meat and Veggie Pies” (speech with PowerPoint slides)
Appendix One Informal Fallacies
Fallacies of Pathos
Fallacies of Ethos
Fallacies of Logos
Appendix Two A Concise Guide to Finding, Evaluating, and Documenting Sources
Finding Print Articles: Searching a Licensed Database
What Is a Licensed Database?
Illustration of a Database Search
Finding Cyberspace Sources: Searching the World Wide Web
Evaluating Your Sources by Reading Rhetorically
Reading with Your Own Goals in Mind
Reading with Rhetorical Awareness
Taking Purposeful Notes
Evaluating Sources
Using Sources
Using Sources for Your Own Purposes
Using Summary, Paraphrase, and Quotation
Avoiding Plagiarism
Citing Sources in Your Text in MLA Style
Documenting Sources in a “Works Cited” List (MLA)
MLA Quick Reference Guide for the Most Common Citations
Formatting an Academic Paper in MLA Style
Student Example of an MLA-Style Research Paper
Citing Sources in Your Text in APA Style
Documenting Sources in a “References” List (APA)
APA Quick Reference Guide for the Most Common Citations
Student Example of an APA-Style Research Paper
Credits
Index
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