The Atmosphere An Introduction to Meteorology

by Lutgens, Frederick K.; Tarbuck, Edward J.; Tasa, Dennis G

• ISBN13: 9780131874626
• ISBN10: 0131874624
• Edition: 10th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-03-27
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

Using everyday, easy-to-grasp examples to reinforce basic concepts, this highly regarded handbook remains the standard introduction to meteorology and the atmosphere components, problems, and applications.Includes the most up-to-date coverage of topics such as: ozone depletion; the ultraviolet index; temperature; dew point temperature and orographic effects; wildfires and weather; thunderstorms and lightning; the record-breaking Florida hurricane season; effects of air pollution, and more. Incorporates top-quality visuals, including new satellite images and illustrations by the award-winning Dennis Tasa, to demonstrate the highly visual nature of meteorology. Uses a largely non-technical writing style to help readers grasp important concepts.For those interested in learning more about meteorology.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiv
Introduction to the Atmosphere	1	(31)
Meteorology, Weather, and Climate	3	(2)
Atmospheric Hazard: Assault by the Elements	5	(1)
The Nature of Scientific Inquiry	6	(2)
Hypothesis	6	(1)
Theory	6	(2)
Scientific Methods	8	(1)
Observing the Atmosphere	8	(2)
The Atmosphere: A Part of the Earth System	10	(6)
Earth's Four Spheres	12	(2)
Earth System Science	14	(1)
Earth as a System	15	(1)
Composition of the Atmosphere	16	(4)
Major Components	16	(1)
Carbon Dioxide	17	(1)
Variable Components	17	(3)
Ozone Depletion---A Global Issue	20	(3)
The Ozone Hole	20	(2)
Effects of Ozone Depletion	22	(1)
Montreal Protocol	22	(1)
Extent of the Atmosphere	23	(1)
Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere	24	(2)
Troposphere	24	(1)
Stratosphere	25	(1)
Mesosphere	25	(1)
Thermosphere	25	(1)
Vertical Variations in Composition	26	(1)
Ionosphere	27	(1)
The Auroras	27	(1)
Chapter Summary	27	(2)
Vocabulary Review	29	(1)
Review Questions	29	(1)
Problems	30	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	31	(1)
Heating Earth's Surface and Atmosphere	32	(32)
Earth-Sun Relationships	34	(7)
Earth's Motions	34	(1)
The Seasons	35	(1)
Earth's Orientation	36	(1)
Solstices and Equinoxes	37	(4)
Energy Heat and Temperature	41	(1)
Forms of Energy	41	(1)
Temperature	42	(1)
Heat	42	(1)
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer	42	(6)
Conduction	42	(2)
Convection	44	(1)
Radiation	44	(4)
What Happens to Incoming Solar Radiation?	48	(3)
Reflection and Scattering	48	(2)
Absorption by Earth's Surface and Atmosphere	50	(1)
Radiation Emitted by Earth	51	(4)
Heating the Atmosphere	51	(2)
The Greenhouse Effect	53	(1)
Role of Clouds in Heating Earth	54	(1)
Heat Budget	55	(2)
Latitudinal Heat Balance	57	(3)
Chapter Summary	60	(1)
Vocabulary Review	61	(1)
Review Questions	61	(1)
Problems	62	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	63	(1)
Temperature	64	(32)
For the Record: Air-Temperature Data	65	(3)
Why Temperatures Vary: The Controls of Temperature	68	(9)
Land and Water	68	(5)
Ocean Currents	73	(1)
Altitude	74	(1)
Geographic Position	75	(1)
Cloud Cover and Albedo	75	(2)
World Distribution of Temperatures	77	(3)
Cycles of Air Temperature	80	(2)
Daily Temperature Variations	81	(1)
Magnitude of Daily Temperature Changes	82	(1)
Annual Temperature Variations	82	(1)
Temperature Measurement	82	(5)
Mechanical Thermometers	83	(3)
Electrical Thermometers	86	(1)
Instrument Shelters	86	(1)
Temperature Scales	87	(1)
Applications of Temperature Data	88	(3)
Heating Degree-Days	88	(1)
Cooling Degree-Days	89	(1)
Growing Degree-Days	89	(1)
Temperature and Comfort	89	(2)
Chapter Summary	91	(1)
Vocabulary Review	92	(1)
Review Questions	93	(1)
Problems	94	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	95	(1)
Moisture and Atmospheric Stability	96	(34)
Movement of Water Through the Atmosphere	98	(1)
Water's Changes of State	99	(4)
Ice, Liquid Water, and Water Vapor	99
Latent Heat	000	(103)
Humidity: Water Vapor in the Air	103	(1)
Vapor Pressure and Saturation	104	(2)
Relative Humidity	106	(4)
How Relative Humidity Changes	106	(3)
Natural Changes in Relative Humidity	109	(1)
Dew-Point Temperature	110	(1)
Humidity Measurement	111	(2)
Adiabatic Temperature Changes	113	(1)
Adiabatic Cooling and Condensation	114	(1)
Processes That Lift Air	114	(6)
Orographic Lifting	115	(1)
Frontal Wedging	116	(1)
Convergence	117	(1)
Localized Convective Lifting	118	(2)
The Critical Weathermaker: Atmospheric Stability	120	(3)
Types of Stability	120	(3)
Stability and Daily Weather	123	(2)
How Stability Changes	124	(1)
Temperature Changes and Stability	125	(1)
Vertical Air Movement and Stability	125	(1)
Chapter Summary	125	(2)
Vocabulary Review	127	(1)
Review Questions	127	(1)
Problems	128	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	129	(1)
Forms of Condensation and Precipitation	130	(36)
Cloud Formation	132	(1)
Condensation Aloft	132	(1)
Growth of Cloud Droplets	132	(1)
Cloud Classification	133	(5)
High Clouds	133	(1)
Middle Clouds	133	(3)
Low Clouds	136	(1)
Clouds of Vertical Development	136	(1)
Cloud Varieties	137	(1)
Types of Fog	138	(4)
Fogs Formed by Cooling	139	(3)
Fogs Formed by Evaporation	142	(1)
Dew and Frost	142	(1)
How Precipitation Forms	143	(7)
Precipitation from Cold Clouds: The Bergeron Process	145	(2)
Precipitation from Warm Clouds: The Collision-Coalescence Process	147	(3)
Forms of Precipitation	150	(5)
Rain	150	(1)
Snow	151	(1)
Sleet and Glaze	151	(1)
Hail	151	(4)
Rime	155	(1)
Precipitation Measurement	155	(2)
Standard Instruments	155	(1)
Measuring Snowfall	156	(1)
Measurement Errors	156	(1)
Precipitation Measurement by Weather Radar	157	(1)
Intentional Weather Modification	157	(5)
Cloud Seeding	158	(1)
Fog and Cloud Dispersal	159	(1)
Hail Suppression	160	(1)
Frost Prevention	161	(1)
Understanding the Role of Clouds in the Climate System	162	(1)
Chapter Summary	163	(1)
Vocabulary Review	163	(1)
Review Questions	164	(1)
Problems	164	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	165	(1)
Air Pressure and Winds	166	(30)
Understanding Air Pressure	168	(1)
Measuring Air Pressure	169	(3)
Pressure Changes with Altitude	172	(1)
Horizontal Variations in Air Pressure	173	(2)
Influence of Temperature and Water Vapor on Air Pressure	174	(1)
Airflow and Pressure	174	(1)
Factors Affecting Wind	175	(6)
Pressure-Gradient Force	175	(3)
Coriolis Force	178	(3)
Friction	181	(1)
Winds Aloft and Geostrophic Flow	181	(2)
Curved Flow and the Gradient Wind	183	(3)
Surface Winds	186	(1)
How Winds Generate Vertical Air Motion	187	(3)
Vertical Airflow Associated with Cyclones and Anticylones	188	(1)
Factors That Promote Vertical Airflow	189	(1)
Wind Measurement	190	(4)
Chapter Summary	194	(1)
Vocabulary Review	195	(1)
Review Questions	195	(1)
Problems	195	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	195	(1)
Circulation of the Atmosphere	196	(36)
Scales of Atmospheric Motion	198	(2)
Large- and Small-Scale Circulation	199	(1)
Structure of Wind Patterns	199	(1)
Local Winds	200	(5)
Land and Sea Breezes	202	(1)
Mountain and Valley Breezes	202	(1)
Chinook (Foehn) Winds	203	(1)
Katabatic (Fall) Winds	203	(1)
Country Breezes	204	(1)
Global Circulation	205	(2)
Single-Cell Circulation Model	205	(1)
Three-Cell Circulation Model	206	(1)
Observed Distribution of Pressure and Winds	207	(3)
Idealized Zonal Pressure Belts	207	(1)
Semipermanent Pressure Systems: The Real World	208	(2)
Monsoons	210	(2)
The Asian Monsoon	210	(1)
The North American Monsoon	211	(1)
The Westerlies	212	(3)
Why Westerlies?	212	(1)
Jet Streams	213	(1)
Origin of the Polar Jet Stream	213	(2)
Subtropical Jet Stream	215	(1)
Waves in the Westerlies	215	(1)
Westerlies and Earth's Heat Budget	215	(2)
Global Winds and Ocean Currents	217	(2)
The Importance of Ocean Currents	218	(1)
Ocean Currents and Upwelling	219	(1)
El Nino and La Nina	219	(3)
Global Distribution of Precipitation	222	(3)
Zonal Distribution of Precipitation	223	(2)
Distribution of Precipitation over the Continents	225	(1)
Precipitation Regimes on a Hypothetical Continent	225	(4)
Chapter Summary	229	(1)
Vocabulary Review	230	(1)
Review Questions	231	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	231	(1)
Air Masses	232	(18)
What Is an Air Mass?	234	(1)
Source Regions	235	(1)
Classifying Air Masses	236	(1)
Air-Mass Modification	237	(1)
Properties of North American Air Masses	237	(9)
Continental Polar (cP) and Continental Arctic (cA) Air Masses	237	(2)
Lake-Effect Snow: Cold Air over Warm Water	239	(1)
Maritime Polar (mP) Air Masses	239	(5)
Maritime Tropical (mT) Air Masses	244	(1)
Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses	245	(1)
Chapter Summary	246	(1)
Vocabulary Review	247	(1)
Review Questions	247	(1)
Problems	248	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	249	(1)
Weather Patterns	250	(34)
Polar-Front Theory (Norwegian Cyclone Model)	253	(1)
Fronts	254	(6)
Warm Fronts	255	(2)
Cold Fronts	257	(1)
Stationary Fronts	258	(1)
Occluded Fronts	258	(2)
Drylines	260	(1)
Life Cycle of a Mid-latitude Cyclone	260	(2)
Formation: The Clash of Two Air Masses	260	(1)
Development of Cyclonic Flow	260	(2)
Occlusion: The Beginning of the End	262	(1)
Idealized Weather of a Mid-latitude Cyclone	262	(3)
Cyclone Formation	265	(2)
Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Circulation	265	(1)
Divergence and Convergence Aloft	266	(1)
Traveling Cyclones	267	(2)
Patterns of Movement	267	(2)
Flow Aloft and Cyclonic Migration	269	(1)
Anticyclonic Weather and Blocking Highs	269	(1)
Case Study of a Mid-latitude Cyclone	270	(9)
Violent Spring Weather	272	(6)
Weather in Peoria	278	(1)
A Modern View: The Conveyor Belt Model	279	(2)
Chapter Summary	281	(1)
Vocabulary Review	282	(1)
Review Questions	282	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	283	(1)
Thunderstorms and Tornadoes	284	(34)
What's in a Name?	286	(1)
Thunderstorms	287	(1)
Air-Mass Thunderstorms	287	(3)
Stages of Developments	288	(1)
Occurrence	289	(1)
Severe Thunderstorms	290	(1)
Supercell Thunderstorms	291	(5)
Squall Lines and Mesoscale Convective Complexes	291	(5)
Microbursts	296	(1)
Lightning and Thunder	296	(4)
What Causes Lightning?	297	(1)
The Lightning Stroke	297	(3)
Thunder	300	(1)
Tornadoes	300	(2)
The Development and Occurrence of Tornadoes	302	(4)
Tornado Development	303	(1)
Tornado Climatology	303	(2)
Profile of a Tornado	305	(1)
Tornado Destruction	306	(2)
Tornado Forecasting	308	(5)
Tornado Watches and Warnings	308	(2)
Doppler Radar	310	(3)
Chapter Summary	313	(2)
Vocabulary Review	315	(1)
Review Questions	315	(1)
Problems	316	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	317	(1)
Hurricanes	318	(26)
Profile of a Hurricane	320	(5)
Hurricane Formation and Decay	325	(2)
Hurricane Formation	326	(1)
Hurricane Decay	327	(1)
Hurricane Destruction	327	(5)
Storm Surge	329	(1)
Wind Damage	330	(1)
Inland Flooding	331	(1)
Estimating the Intensity of a Hurricane	332	(1)
Detecting and Tracking Hurricanes	333	(8)
The Role of Satellites	338	(1)
Aircraft Reconnaissance	338	(1)
Radar and Data Buoys	338	(1)
Hurricane Watches and Warnings	339	(2)
Chapter Summary	341	(1)
Vocabulary Review	341	(1)
Review Questions	342	(1)
Problems	342	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	343	(1)
Weather Analysis and Forecasting	344	(32)
The Weather Business: A Brief Overview	346	(2)
Weather Analysis	348	(4)
Gathering Data	348	(2)
Weather Maps: Pictures of the Atmosphere	350	(2)
Weather Forecasting	352	(6)
Numerical Weather Prediction: Forecasting by Computer	353	(3)
Other Forecasting Methods	356	(2)
Upper Airflow and Weather Forecasting	358	(6)
Upper-Level Maps	358	(2)
The Connection Between Upper-Level Flow and Surface Weather	360	(4)
Long-Range Forecasts	364	(1)
Forecast Accuracy	365	(3)
Satellites in Weather Forecasting	368	(4)
What Weather Satellites Provide	369	(1)
Satellite Measurements	370	(2)
Chapter Summary	372	(1)
Vocabulary Review	372	(1)
Review Questions	373	(1)
Problems	373	(2)
Atmospheric Science Online	375	(1)
Air Pollution	376	(22)
A Brief Historical Perspective	376	(4)
Air Pollution: Not a New Problem	379	(1)
Some Historic Episodes	380	(1)
Sources and Types of Air Pollution	380	(7)
Primary Pollutants	381	(5)
Secondary Pollutants	386	(1)
Trends in Air Quality	387	(4)
Meteorological Factors Affecting Air Pollution	391	(2)
Wind As a Factor	391	(1)
The Role of Atmospheric Stability	391	(2)
Acid Precipitation	393	(3)
Extent and Potency of Acid Precipitation	393	(1)
Effects of Acid Precipitation	393	(3)
Chapter Summary	396	(1)
Vocabulary Review	397	(1)
Review Questions	397	(1)
Problems	397	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	397	(1)
The Changing Climate	398	(30)
The Climate System	400	(1)
How Is Climate Change Detected?	400	(5)
Seafloor Sediment---A Storehouse of Climate Data	400	(1)
Oxygen Isotope Analysis	401	(1)
Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice	402	(1)
Tree Rings---Archives of Environmental History	403	(2)
Other Types of Proxy Data	405	(1)
Natural Causes of Climate Change	405	(8)
Plate Tectonies and Climate Change	406	(1)
Volcanic Activity and Climate Change	407	(2)
Orbital Variations	409	(3)
Solar Variability and Climate	412	(1)
Human Impact on Global Climate	413	(1)
Carbon Dioxide, Trace Gases, and Climate Change	413	(4)
CO2 Levels Are Rising	414	(1)
The Atmosphere's Response	415	(1)
The Role of Trace Gases	415	(2)
Climate-Feedback Mechanisms	417	(2)
How Aerosols Influence Climate	419	(1)
Some Possible Consequences of Global Warming	419	(7)
Water Resources and Agriculture	420	(1)
Sea-Level Rise	421	(1)
The Changing Arctic	421	(3)
The Potential for ``Surprises''	424	(2)
Chapter Summary	426	(1)
Vocabulary Review	427	(1)
Review Questions	427	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	427	(1)
World Climates	428	(42)
Climate Classification	430	(2)
Climate Controls: A Summary	432	(4)
Latitude	432	(1)
Land and Water	432	(1)
Geographic Position and Prevailing Winds	432	(1)
Mountains and Highlands	433	(1)
Ocean Currents	433	(3)
Pressure and Wind Systems	436	(1)
World Climates---An Overview	436	(1)
The Wet Tropics (Af, Am)	436	(5)
Temperature Characteristics	438	(1)
Precipitation Characteristics	439	(2)
Tropical Wet and Dry (Aw)	441	(2)
Temperature Characteristics	441	(1)
Precipitation Characteristics	441	(1)
The Monsoon	442	(1)
The Cw Variant	442	(1)
The Dry Climates (B)	443	(7)
What Is Meant by ``Dry''?	444	(1)
Subtropical Desert (BWh) and Steppe (BSh)	445	(2)
West Coast Subtropical Deserts	447	(2)
Middle-Latitude Desert (BWk) and Steppe (BSk)	449	(1)
Humid Middle-Latitude Climates with Mild Winters (C)	450	(5)
Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa)	450	(2)
The Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb)	452	(1)
The Dry-Summer Subtropical (Mediterranean) Climate (Csa, Csb)	453	(2)
Humid Continental Climates with Severe Winters (D)	455	(4)
Humid Continental Climate (Dfa)	455	(3)
The Subarctic Climate (Dfc, Dfd)	458	(1)
The Polar Climates (E)	459	(3)
The Tundra Climate (ET)	459	(2)
The Ice-Cap Climate (EF)	461	(1)
Highland Climates	462	(3)
Chapter Summary	465	(1)
Vocabulary Review	466	(1)
Review Questions	467	(1)
Problems	468	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	469	(1)
Optical Phenomena of the Atmosphere	470	(17)
Nature of Light	472	(2)
Reflection	472	(1)
Refraction	473	(1)
Mirages	474	(2)
Rainbows	476	(3)
Halos, Sun Dogs, and Solar Pillars	479	(3)
The Glory	482	(1)
The Corona	483	(2)
Chapter Summary	485	(1)
Vocabulary Review	485	(1)
Review Questions	486	(1)
Atmospheric Science Online	486	(1)
Appendix A Metric Units	487	(3)
Appendix B Explanation and Decoding of the Daily Weather Map	490	(7)
Appendix C Relative Humitidy and Dew-Point Tables	497	(2)
Appendix D Laws Relating to Gases	499	(1)
Appendix E Newton's Laws of Motion	500	(1)
Appendix F Climate Data	501	(5)
Glossary	506	(9)
Index	515