Classroom Assessment : Principles and Practice for Effective Standards-Based Instruction

by McMillan, James H.

• ISBN13: 9780205485840
• ISBN10: 0205485847
• Additional ISBN(s): 9780132099615, 9780205380909
• Edition: 4th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2011-01-01
• Publisher: Prentice Hall
• More Book Details
• Purchase Benefits

Summary

This text provides prospective and current teachers with a concise, non-technical, and practical guide to conducting a full range of high-quality classroom assessments. The text emphasizes assessment in the context of the realities of teaching and teacher decision-making in an era of standards-based education. Assessment methods are integrated with instruction and presented according to when teachers evaluate students (before, during, and after an instructional unit), the learning targets that are measured, and standards emphasized in state-wide testing. There is considerable emphasis on the nature of learning targets and how different assessments are most appropriate for different targets. For each assessment technique, suggestions for effective practice are presented with examples, case studies, and teacher interviews. This edition includes additional emphasis on formative assessment for student learning.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
The Role of Assessment in Teaching	1	(26)
Integrating Instruction and Assessment	2	(6)
The Realities of Teaching	2	(3)
Instructional Decision Making and Assessment	5	(3)
What Is Classroom Assessment?	8	(4)
Purpose	9	(1)
Measurement	9	(1)
Evaluation	9	(1)
Use	10	(1)
Diagnosis	10	(1)
Grading	11	(1)
Instruction	11	(1)
Research on Learning, Motivation, Instruction, and Curriculum: Implications for Assessment	12	(2)
Recent Trends in Classroom Assessment	14	(4)
The Influence of Large-Scale Accountability Testing	18	(2)
Teachers' Classroom Assessment and Grading Practices Decision Making	20	(2)
Assessment Standards for Teachers	22	(1)
Summary	23	(1)
What's Coming	24	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	24	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	25	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	26	(1)
Learning Targets and Standards	27	(29)
What Are Learning Targets?	28	(12)
Educational Goals	28	(1)
Objectives	28	(4)
Standards-Based Education	32	(3)
Criteria	35	(1)
Expectations	36	(3)
Learning Targets	39	(1)
Types of Learning Targets	40	(3)
Knowledge and Simple Understanding Learning Targets	42	(1)
Deep Understanding and Reasoning Learning Targets	42	(1)
Skill Learning Targets	42	(1)
Product Learning Targets	43	(1)
Affective Learning Targets	43	(1)
Sources of Learning Targets and Standards	43	(7)
Bloom's Taxonomy of Objectives	43	(2)
Bloom's Revised Taxonomy of Objectives	45	(1)
Professional Preparation	46	(1)
Textbooks	46	(2)
Existing Lists of Objectives	48	(1)
National and State Standards	49	(1)
Criteria for Selecting Learning Targets and Standards	50	(2)
Summary	52	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	53	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	54	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	55	(1)
High-Quality Classroom Assessment	56	(36)
What Is High-Quality Classroom Assessment?	57	(1)
Clear and Appropriate Learning Targets	58	(1)
Appropriateness of Assessment Methods	58	(6)
Types of Assessment Methods	58	(2)
Matching Targets with Methods	60	(1)
Knowledge and Simple Understanding	61	(1)
Deep Understanding and Reasoning	62	(1)
Skills	62	(1)
Products	63	(1)
Affect	63	(1)
Validity	64	(5)
What Is a Valid Assessment?	64	(1)
How Is Validity Determined?	65	(1)
Content-Related Evidence	65	(2)
Criterion-Related Evidence	67	(1)
Construct-Related Evidence	68	(1)
Reliability	69	(7)
What Is a Reliable Score?	69	(2)
Assessment Error	71	(1)
How Is Reliability Determined?	72	(1)
Sources of Reliability Evidence	73	(1)
Evidence Based on Stability	73	(1)
Evidence Based on Equivalent Forms	73	(1)
Evidence Based on Internal Consistency	74	(1)
Evidence Based on Scorer or Rater Consistency	74	(1)
Evidence Based on Decision Consistency	75	(1)
Factors Influencing Reliability Estimates	75	(1)
Fairness	76	(4)
Student Knowledge of Learning Targets and Assessments	77	(1)
Opportunity to Learn	77	(1)
Prerequisite Knowledge and Skills	77	(1)
Avoiding Student Stereotyping	78	(1)
Avoiding Bias in Assessment Tasks and Procedures	78	(2)
Accommodating Special Needs	80	(1)
Positive Consequences	80	(2)
Positive Consequences for Students	80	(2)
Positive Consequences for Teachers	82	(1)
Alignment	82	(4)
Practicality and Efficiency	86	(2)
Teacher Familiarity with the Method	86	(1)
Time Required	86	(1)
Complexity of Administration	87	(1)
Ease of Scoring	87	(1)
Ease of Interpretation	87	(1)
Cost	88	(1)
Summary	88	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	89	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	90	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	91	(1)
Assessment before Instruction: Learning about Your Students	92	(24)
Before School Begins: What Do You Know about Your Students?	93	(10)
School Records	94	(2)
Norm-Referenced Standardized Test Scores	96	(1)
Achievement Test Batteries	97	(2)
Aptitude Tests	99	(1)
Readiness Tests	99	(1)
Standards-Based State and District Test Scores	100	(1)
Uses of Standardized Tests	101	(1)
Information Cards	102	(1)
After the First Week: Now What Do You Know about Your Students?	103	(4)
Informal Observation	103	(2)
Structured Exercises	105	(1)
Pretests	106	(1)
Teacher Expectations	107	(3)
High-Quality Preinstructional Assessment	110	(3)
Clear and Appropriate Learning Targets	110	(1)
Appropriateness of Assessment Methods	111	(1)
Validity	111	(1)
Reliability	112	(1)
Fairness	112	(1)
Positive Consequences	112	(1)
Alignment	113	(1)
Practicality and Efficiency	113	(1)
Summary	113	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	114	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	115	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	115	(1)
Formative Assessment: Assessing and Promoting Student Progress during Instruction	116	(40)
Formative Assessment	117	(2)
Informal Observation	119	(9)
Assessing Nonverbal Behavior	120	(1)
Facial Expressions	121	(2)
Body Language	123	(1)
Gestures	124	(1)
Assessing Voice-Related Cues	124	(3)
Sources of Error in Informal Observation	127	(1)
Using Oral Questioning to Assess Student Progress	128	(7)
Purposes of Questioning	129	(1)
Characteristics of Effective Questioning to Assess Student Progress	130	(5)
Using Homework, In-Class Assignments, and Quizzes	135	(3)
Homework	136	(1)
In-Class Assignments	136	(1)
Quizzes	137	(1)
Providing Feedback and Praise	138	(5)
Characteristics of Effective Feedback	139	(3)
Characteristics of Effective Praise	142	(1)
Student Self-Assessment	143	(6)
Summary	149	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	150	(2)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	152	(2)
Suggestions for Action Research	154	(2)
Objectively Scored Assessments of Knowledge and Simple Understanding: Completion, Short-Answer, and Selected-Response Items	156	(37)
Preparing for Summative Assessment	157	(5)
Representative Sampling	158	(1)
Number and Length of Assessments	158	(1)
Use of Assessments Provided by Textbook and Test Publishers	159	(1)
Preparing Students for Summative Assessments	160	(1)
Scheduling the Summative Assessment	161	(1)
When Summative Assessments Should Be Constructed	162	(1)
Types of Knowledge and Simple Understanding Targets	162	(5)
Knowledge Representation	162	(2)
Declarative Knowledge and Understanding	164	(1)
Procedural Knowledge and Understanding	165	(2)
Assessing Knowledge	167	(14)
Completion and Short-Answer Items	167	(1)
Completion Items	167	(3)
Short-Answer Items	170	(2)
Matching Items	172	(2)
True/False and Other Binary-Choice Items	174	(3)
Multiple-Choice Items	177	(4)
Assessing Simple Understanding: Comprehension and Application	181	(4)
Assessing Comprehension	181	(1)
Assessing Application	182	(3)
Putting Tests Together	185	(2)
Preparing Test Directions	185	(1)
Arranging Items	186	(1)
Physical Layout of the Test	186	(1)
Administering Classroom Assessments	187	(1)
Summary	188	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	189	(2)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	191	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	192	(1)
Selected-Response, Short-Answer, and Essay Items: Assessing Deep Understanding and Reasoning	193	(35)
What Is Deep Understanding?	194	(1)
What Are Reasoning Skills?	195	(6)
Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain	197	(1)
Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy	198	(1)
Ennis's Taxonomy of Critical Thinking Dispositions and Abilities	199	(1)
Quellmalz and Hoskyn's Framework for Reasoning Strategies	199	(2)
Assessing Deep Understanding and Reasoning	201	(22)
Short-Answer and Selected-Response Items	202	(1)
Short Answer	203	(1)
Binary-Choice	204	(1)
Multiple-Choice	204	(3)
Interpretive Exercises	207	(6)
Essay Items	213	(3)
Advantages and Disadvantages	216	(1)
Constructing Essay Items	216	(4)
Scoring Essays	220	(3)
Summary	223	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	224	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	225	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	226	(2)
Performance Assessments: Assessing Deep Understanding, Reasoning, and Skills	228	(40)
What Is Performance Assessment?	229	(1)
Strengths and Limitations of Performance Assessments	230	(3)
Learning Targets for Performance Assessments	233	(6)
Deep Understanding	233	(1)
Reasoning	233	(1)
Skills	234	(1)
Communication and Presentation Skills	234	(2)
Psychomotor Skills	236	(1)
Products	237	(2)
Constructing Performance Tasks	239	(10)
Restricted- and Extended-Type Performance Tasks	239	(2)
Performance Task Descriptions and Contexts	241	(1)
Performance Task Question or Prompt	242	(7)
Criteria and Rubrics	249	(15)
Performance Criteria	249	(1)
Rating Scales	250	(2)
Rubrics	252	(1)
Developing Rubrics	253	(11)
Summary	264	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	265	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	266	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	267	(1)
Portfolios: Assessing Understanding, Reasoning, Skills, and Products	268	(26)
What Are Portfolios?	269	(5)
Advantages	271	(1)
Disadvantages	272	(2)
Planning for Portfolio Assessment	274	(5)
Purpose	274	(1)
Learning Targets	274	(1)
Uses	274	(2)
Identify Physical Structure	276	(1)
Determine Sources of Content	276	(3)
Determine Student Self-Reflective Guidelines and Scoring Criteria	279	(1)
Implementing Portfolio Assessment	279	(11)
Review with Students	279	(1)
Supplying Portfolio Content	280	(1)
Student Self-Evaluations	281	(6)
Teacher Evaluation	287	(1)
Checklists of Contents	287	(1)
Portfolio Structure Evaluation	287	(1)
Evaluations of Individual Entries	287	(1)
Evaluation of Entire Contents	288	(1)
Student--Teacher Conferences	288	(2)
Summary	290	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	291	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	292	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	293	(1)
Assessing Affective Traits and Dispositions	294	(33)
Are Affective Targets Important?	295	(1)
What Are Affective Traits and Learning Targets?	296	(9)
Attitude Targets	296	(2)
Value Targets	298	(1)
Motivation Targets	299	(1)
Academic Self-Concept Targets	300	(1)
Social Relationship Targets	301	(1)
Classroom Environment Targets	302	(1)
Affective Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives	303	(2)
Methods of Assessing Affective Targets	305	(18)
Teacher Observation	305	(2)
Unstructured Observation	307	(1)
Structured Observation	308	(1)
Student Self-Report	308	(1)
Student Interview	308	(2)
Questionnaires and Surveys	310	(2)
Constructed-Response Formats	312	(1)
Selected-Response Formats	313	(5)
Constructing Self-Report Items	318	(2)
Peer Ratings	320	(1)
Guess-Who Approach	320	(1)
Sociometric Approach	320	(1)
Which Method or Combination of Methods Should I Use?	321	(1)
Ensuring Anonymity	322	(1)
Summary	323	(2)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	325	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	326	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	326	(1)
Assessing Students with Special Needs in Inclusive Settings	327	(25)
Legal Mandates	328	(2)
Assessing Students for Identification	330	(6)
Steps before Identification	330	(1)
Identification	331	(1)
Mild Mental Retardation	332	(1)
Sensory Impairment	332	(1)
Physical Impairment	332	(1)
Learning Disability	333	(1)
Emotional Disturbance	333	(1)
Attention Deficits	333	(1)
Hyperactivity	333	(1)
Limited-English-Proficient Students	334	(2)
Assessment Problems Encountered by Students with Special Needs	336	(3)
Comprehension Difficulties	336	(1)
Auditory Difficulties	337	(1)
Visual Difficulties	337	(1)
Time Constraint Difficulties	338	(1)
Anxiety	338	(1)
Embarrassment	338	(1)
Variability of Behavior	338	(1)
Assessment Accommodations	339	(5)
Adaptations in Test Directions, Construction, and Format	339	(1)
Short-Answer and Essay Items	340	(1)
Multiple-Choice Items	341	(1)
Binary-Choice Items	341	(1)
Completion Items	341	(1)
Performance Assessments	342	(1)
Portfolios	342	(1)
Adaptations in Test Administration	342	(1)
Adaptations in Testing Site	342	(2)
Grading and Reporting Accommodations	344	(4)
Grading Accommodations	345	(1)
IEP Grading	345	(1)
Shared Grading	346	(1)
Contracting	346	(1)
Reporting Accommodations	346	(2)
Summary	348	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	349	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	350	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	351	(1)
Grading and Reporting Student Performance	352	(40)
Teachers' Judgments in Grading	353	(3)
Functions of Marking and Grading	356	(10)
Providing Feedback	356	(1)
Incorporating Factors Other Than Performance	357	(1)
Effort	357	(1)
Aptitude	358	(1)
Improvement	359	(1)
Attitudes	359	(1)
Basis of Comparison	360	(4)
Motivation	364	(2)
Approaches to Marking and Grading	366	(6)
Letter Grades	366	(1)
Percentage Correct	367	(1)
Pass--Fail	368	(1)
Checklists	368	(1)
Standards-Based	369	(1)
Written Descriptions	370	(2)
Determining Report Card (Composite) Grades	372	(12)
Select What to Include in the Final Grade	372	(1)
Select Weights for Each Assessment	373	(2)
Combining Different Scores and Grades	375	(1)
Eyeball Method	375	(1)
Percent Correct Method	375	(4)
Total Points Method	379	(1)
Combining Relative Scores and Grades	380	(1)
Borderline Grades	381	(1)
Suggestions for Fair Grading	381	(3)
Reporting Student Progress to Parents	384	(3)
Report Cards	384	(1)
Written Information	384	(1)
Parent--Teacher Conferences	385	(2)
Student-Led Conferences	387	(1)
Summary	387	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	388	(2)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	390	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	391	(1)
Administering and Interpreting Standardized and State Standards-Based Tests	392	(32)
Fundamental Descriptive Statistics	393	(8)
Frequency Distributions	393	(1)
Measures of Central Tendency	394	(2)
Measures of Variability	396	(1)
Measures of Relationship	397	(1)
Scatterplot	398	(1)
Correlation Coefficient	399	(2)
Types of Derived Standardized Test Scores	401	(5)
Standard Scores	401	(1)
Z-Score	402	(1)
T-Score	402	(1)
Normal Curve Equivalent	403	(1)
Stanines	403	(1)
Scaled Score	404	(1)
Deviation IQ and Standard Age Scores	405	(1)
Other Standard Scores	405	(1)
Grade Equivalent Scores	405	(1)
Interpreting Standardized and State Standards-Based Tests	406	(8)
Standard Error of Measurement	406	(1)
Alignment	407	(1)
Interpretation of Norm-Referenced Standardized Tests	408	(1)
Types of Standardized Test Norms	408	(1)
Using Test Norms	409	(2)
Criterion-Referenced/Standards-Based Interpretations	411	(3)
Understanding Standardized Test Score Reports	414	(2)
Interpreting Test Reports for Parents	416	(2)
Preparing Students to Take Standardized Tests	418	(2)
Administering Standardized Tests	420	(1)
Summary	420	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	421	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	422	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	423	(1)
Appendix A The Scope of a Teacher's Professional Role and Responsibilities for Student Assessment	424	(3)
Appendix B The Student Evaluation Standards	427	(3)
Glossary	430	(5)
References	435	(6)
Index	441