Constitutional Law

by Barron, Jerome A.

• ISBN13: 9780314158857
• ISBN10: 0314158855
• Edition: 7th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-12-12
• Publisher: West Group

Summary

This Black Letter discusses the allocations of national and state governmental power, individual rights and liberties, and the constitutional limitations on governmental power. Topics covered include the Dormant Commerce Clause, abortion, fundamental rights and due process, takings, equal protection, First Amendment and content-based regulations, and freedom of religion.

Table of Contents

Capsule Summary of Constitutional Law	1	(70)
Perspective	71	(16)
PART ONE: THE ALLOCATION OF GOVERNMENTAL POWER: NATIONAL AND STATE
Judicial Review	87	(40)
Establishing Judicial Review	88	(2)
``Judicial Review'' Defined	88	(1)
Review of Federal Action	88	(1)
Reviewing Acts of Congress---Marbury v. Madison	88	(1)
Reviewing Executive Action	89	(1)
Review of State Action	90	(1)
Source of Judicial Power: Article III Jurisdiction	90	(4)
Federal ``Judicial Power'' Defined	91	(1)
Art. III and Art. I Courts	91	(1)
Subject Matter Jurisdiction	91	(1)
Congressional Control	91	(1)
Supreme Court Jurisdiction	92	(1)
Original Jurisdiction	93	(1)
Appellate Jurisdiction---Congressional Power to Confer and Withdraw	93	(1)
Essential Functions: Internal Restraints	93	(1)
Rights and Liberties: External Restraints	93	(1)
Discretionary Review	94	(1)
Certiorari	94	(1)
Basis for Review	94	(1)
Constitutional and Policy Limitations on Judicial Review	94	(4)
Constitutional Limitations	95	(1)
Eleventh Amendment	95	(1)
State Immunity	95	(1)
Waiver	95	(1)
Congressional Limitations	96	(1)
Unconstitutional Official Acts	96	(1)
Case and Controversy	97	(1)
No Advisory Opinions	97	(1)
Declaratory Judgments	97	(1)
Policy Limitations (Judicial Self Restraint)	98	(1)
Rules for Constitutional Review	98	(1)
Presumption of Constitutionality	98	(1)
Judicial Restraint	98	(1)
Congressional Role	98	(1)
Specific Doctrines---Limiting Judicial Review	98	(26)
The Standing Limitation---Who Can Litigate?	98	(1)
Constitutional Standing	98	(1)
General Standards	98	(1)
``Injury in Fact''	99	(4)
Causation---``Fairly Traceable''	103	(2)
Redressability	105	(1)
Taxpayer and Citizen Standing	106	(1)
Federal Taxpayers	106	(1)
State Taxpayers	107	(1)
Citizen Standing	107	(1)
Statutory Standing	108	(3)
Prudential Standing	111	(1)
Third Party Standing---Raising the Rights of Others	111	(3)
Associational Standing	114	(1)
The Timing Limitation---When Can Constitutional Litigation Be Brought?	114	(1)
Mootness	114	(3)
Ripeness, Prematurity and Abstractness	117	(3)
Discretionary Abstention	120	(1)
Vagueness	120	(1)
Pending State Proceedings	120	(1)
The Subject Matter Limitation---What Can Be Litigated?	121	(1)
The Political Question Doctrine	121	(1)
Classic Doctrine	121	(1)
Functional Considerations	121	(1)
Prudential Considerations	121	(2)
Adequate and Independent State Grounds	123	(1)
Substantive Rules	123	(1)
Procedural Rules	123	(1)
Review Questions	124	(3)
National Legislative Powers	127	(30)
The Scope of the National Legislative Power	128	(3)
Express Powers	128	(1)
Implied Powers	128	(1)
``Necessary and Proper'' Clause	128	(1)
Interpretation of ``Necessary and Proper''	128	(2)
Inherent Powers	130	(1)
Delegation of Powers	130	(1)
The Tenth Amendment	130	(1)
The Supremacy Clause	130	(1)
Commerce Power	131	(11)
Definition	131	(1)
Territorial Movement	131	(1)
A Broader Commerce Power	131	(1)
The Regulatory Power	131	(1)
Achieving Social Welfare Through the Commerce Power---A National Police Power?	131	(1)
Prohibiting Commerce	132	(1)
Pretext Principle	132	(1)
Protective Principle---The Modern View	132	(1)
Stream of Commerce	133	(1)
Instrumentalities of Commerce	133	(1)
The Affectation Doctrine	134	(1)
Regulating Local Activities	134	(1)
Direct-Indirect Test	134	(1)
The Modern Affectation Doctrine	135	(1)
Substantial Effects	135	(1)
Cumulative Effects	135	(1)
Restricting the Commerce Power	136	(3)
Affectation after Lopez and Morrison	139	(3)
Narrowing Construction	142	(1)
The Taxing Power	142	(2)
Objective Constitutionality	143	(1)
The Penalty Doctrine	143	(1)
Modern Trend	144	(1)
Self-Incrimination	144	(1)
The Spending Power	144	(3)
General Welfare	144	(1)
Reasonable Conditions	145	(1)
Constitutional Limitations	145	(2)
Spending as a Contract: Explicit Conditions	147	(1)
Intergovernmental Immunities	147	(6)
State Taxation and Regulation	148	(1)
Federal Taxation and Regulation	148	(1)
Federal Taxation of States	148	(1)
Federal Regulation of States	148	(5)
Review Questions	153	(4)
State Power in American Federalism	157	(34)
State Power to Regulate Commerce	159	(24)
Establishing the Foundations	159	(1)
The Nature of the Power---Exclusive or Concurrent	159	(1)
The Commerce Power Is, at Least Partially, a Shared Power	159	(1)
Primacy of Federal Regulation	160	(1)
The Nature of the Subject---The Cooley Doctrine	160	(1)
The Modern Focus: The Dormant Commerce Clause	160	(1)
Rationale	161	(1)
Common Market Philosophy	161	(1)
A Political Rationale	161	(1)
Direct and Indirect Effects	161	(1)
The Modern Standards	161	(1)
Discrimination	161	(1)
Intentional Discrimination	161	(1)
Discriminatory Means and Effects	162	(8)
Undue Burdens---Ad Hoc Balancing	170	(1)
Important State Interests	170	(1)
Trade, Conservation, Environment	171	(3)
Transportation	174	(1)
State as Market Participant	174	(2)
Protecting Personal Mobility Through the Dormant Commerce Clause	176	(1)
Interstate Privileges and Immunities	176	(3)
When Congress Speaks	179	(1)
Preemption	179	(2)
Legitimizing State Burdens on Commerce	181	(2)
The Compact Clause	183	(1)
State Power to Tax Commerce	183	(5)
General Principles	184	(1)
Concurrent Power	184	(1)
Discrimination	184	(1)
Due Process	184	(1)
Interstate Commerce	184	(1)
``Multiple Burdens''	184	(1)
Apportionment	185	(1)
Modern Applications	185	(3)
Review Questions	188	(3)
Congress and Executive Power	191	(20)
The Domestic Arena	192	(8)
Executive Law-Making	192	(1)
Limited Domestic Law-Making Powers	192	(1)
Veto Power	193	(1)
Executive Impoundment	194	(1)
Justification	194	(1)
Critique	194	(1)
Delegation and Control of Legislative Power	194	(1)
Legislative Delegation	194	(2)
The Legislative Veto	196	(1)
The Appointment and Removal Power	196	(1)
The Appointment Power	196	(2)
The Removal Power	198	(1)
Executive Removal	198	(1)
Congressional Removal	198	(1)
Separation of Powers Generally	199	(1)
The Foreign Arena	200	(4)
Foreign Affairs	200	(1)
Presidential Powers	200	(1)
Congressional Powers	200	(1)
Shared Powers	201	(1)
Treaties and Executive Agreements	201	(1)
Treaties	201	(1)
Executive Agreements	201	(1)
Supremacy	201	(1)
Self-Executing Treaties	202	(1)
The War Power	202	(1)
Shared Power	202	(1)
Declaring and Making War	203	(1)
War Powers Resolution	203	(1)
The Militia Clauses	203	(1)
Military Detentions	203	(1)
Privileges and Immunities	204	(3)
Executive Privilege	204	(1)
Limitations	204	(1)
Unsettled Areas	204	(1)
Impeachment	205	(1)
Grounds	205	(1)
Procedure	205	(1)
Unsettled Questions	206	(1)
Presidential Immunity	206	(1)
Congressional Immunity	206	(1)
Review Questions	207	(4)
PART TWO: INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES: CONSTITUTIONAL LIMITATIONS ON GOVERNMENTAL POWER
Historical Perspectives	211	(6)
The Original Constitution	212	(1)
Natural Rights	212	(1)
Express Rights	212	(1)
Bill of Rights	212	(1)
The Civil War Amendments	213	(1)
Subsequent Amendments	213	(1)
The Thirteenth Amendment	213	(1)
The Fourteenth Amendment	213	(1)
The Fifteenth Amendment	213	(1)
Privileges and Immunities of National Citizenship	213	(2)
The Slaughterhouse Cases	213	(1)
Function of the Clause	214	(1)
Rationale	214	(1)
Recent Revival	214	(1)
Review Questions	215	(2)
Due Process of Law	217	(60)
Ex Post Facto Laws	218	(3)
Constitutional Text	218	(1)
Criminal Punishment	218	(2)
Civil Laws	220	(1)
Bills of Attainder	221	(1)
Constitutional Text	221	(1)
Punishment Without Trial	221	(1)
Impairment of Obligation of Contract	222	(2)
Constitutional Text	222	(1)
Present Scope	222	(1)
Judicial Construction	222	(1)
Private Contracts	222	(1)
Public Contracts	223	(1)
The Takings Clause	224	(8)
Taking Property	224	(1)
Constitutional Text	224	(1)
What Is a ``Taking''	224	(1)
Regulatory Takings	224	(1)
Reasonable Regulation	224	(3)
Categorical (Per Se) Takings	227	(2)
Conditional Takings	229	(2)
Public Use	231	(1)
Due Process: The Incorporation Process	232	(1)
Total Incorporation	232	(1)
Flexible Due Process	232	(1)
Selective Incorporation	232	(1)
Standard of Incorporation	232	(1)
Provisions Not Incorporated	233	(1)
Full and Partial Incorporation	233	(1)
Traditional Substantive Due Process	233	(4)
The Rise and Fall of Economic Substantive Due Process	234	(1)
Rise of Economic Substantive Due Process	234	(1)
Decline of Economic Substantive Due Process	234	(1)
Modern Substantive Due Process: Non-Fundamental Rights	235	(2)
Substantive Due Process Revisited: The Right of Privacy and Other Unenumerated Rights	237	(18)
Fundamental Rights	237	(1)
Express, Implied and Unenumerated Rights	237	(1)
Contraception and Abortion	238	(1)
The Privacy Right	238	(1)
The Roe v. Wade Revolution and Reaction	239	(1)
The Uncertain Effect of Casey	240	(3)
Privacy Rights of Minors	243	(1)
Abortion Funding	244	(1)
Sodomy Laws	245	(1)
The Bowers v. Hardwick Precedent	245	(1)
Bowers v. Hardwick Overruled	245	(2)
Rights to Marriage and Family Life	247	(2)
The Right of Travel	249	(1)
Right of Interstate Movement	249	(1)
Right of Foreign Travel	250	(1)
The Right to Care and Protection	250	(1)
The Right to Refuse Treatment	251	(1)
The Right to Die	252	(1)
Rights in Restricted Environments	253	(2)
Procedural Due Process	255	(17)
What Is ``Property''?	256	(1)
What Is ``Liberty''?	257	(1)
What Is a ``Deprivation''?	258	(1)
Due Process Contexts	258	(1)
Welfare Rights	258	(1)
The Statutory Entitlement Concept	258	(1)
Balancing to Determine Fairness	258	(1)
The Right to Use and Possess Property: Constitutionalizing the Consumer Credit Relationship	259	(1)
Wages as a Property Interest	259	(1)
Contingent Interests in Property	259	(1)
Employment Rights of the Public Sector	260	(1)
Conditions of Employment	260	(1)
Employment at Will---Conditional Property Interests	261	(1)
Institutional Due Process	262	(3)
Parental Rights	265	(1)
Student Rights	266	(1)
Access to Courts	267	(1)
Filing and Record Fees	267	(1)
Effective Access	268	(1)
Miscellaneous	269	(2)
Conclusive Presumptions	271	(1)
Review Questions	272	(5)
Equal Protection	277	(62)
General Standards	278	(1)
Constitutional Text	278	(1)
Unreasonable Classification	278	(1)
Standards of Reasonableness	278	(1)
Traditional Equal Protection	278	(5)
The Rational Basis Test	278	(2)
Rationality With Bite	280	(3)
Heightened Review Equal Protection	283	(51)
Suspect Classifications	283	(1)
Criteria of Suspectness	283	(1)
Purpose, Not Effect	283	(4)
Legislation and Administration	287	(1)
The Rationale and Limits of Suspectness	288	(1)
Race and National Origin	288	(2)
Segregation in Education	290	(1)
De Jure Segregation	290	(1)
De Facto Segregation	290	(1)
Duty to Desegregate	290	(1)
Desegregation: Balancing, Quotas and Busing	291	(2)
Interdistrict Segregation	293	(1)
Resegregation	293	(1)
Affirmative Action	294	(11)
Alienage---The ``Sometimes Suspect'' Classification	305	(1)
Compelling Justification	305	(1)
Political Functions Exception	306	(1)
Preemption	307	(1)
Federal Discrimination	307	(1)
Gender Classifications	308	(1)
Sex Discrimination	308	(4)
Discriminatory Purpose	312	(1)
Non-sex Classifications	312	(1)
Affirmative Action	313	(1)
Mothers and Fathers	314	(1)
Illegitimacy Classifications	315	(1)
Wealth and Age	316	(1)
Mental Retardation	317	(1)
Sexual Orientation	317	(1)
Fundamental Rights and Interests	318	(1)
First Amendment Rights	319	(1)
The Right to Travel	319	(2)
The Right of Sexual Privacy	321	(1)
Right to Marry	321	(1)
Voting	322	(1)
Exercising the Franchise	322	(1)
Voting Qualifications	322	(1)
Special Purpose Districts	323	(1)
Durational Residency Requirements	324	(1)
The Fifteenth Amendment	324	(1)
Diluting the Franchise	325	(1)
Access to the Ballot	325	(1)
Reapportionment	326	(2)
Multi-member Districts	328	(1)
Political Gerrymandering	329	(1)
Inequality in Vote Processes	330	(1)
Access to Justice	330	(2)
Education	332	(2)
Welfare	334	(1)
Review Questions	334	(5)
Freedom of Expression	339	(134)
The Basic Doctrine of Freedom of Expression	340	(12)
First Amendment Rationale	340	(1)
Marketplace of Ideas	340	(1)
The Citizen Participant Model	340	(1)
The Individual Liberty Model	341	(1)
First Amendment Methodology	341	(1)
Categories of Speech	341	(1)
Strict Scrutiny	342	(1)
Balancing	342	(1)
Content-Based v. Content-Neutral Regulation	342	(1)
Content-Based Regulation	342	(2)
Content-Neutral Regulation	344	(2)
The Doctrine of Prior Restraint: Forms of Control	346	(4)
First Amendment Vagueness and Overbreadth	350	(1)
Vagueness	350	(1)
Overbreadth	350	(1)
Third Party Standing	351	(1)
Substantial Overbreadth	351	(1)
Freedom of Association and Belief	352	(10)
Restraints on Membership and Associational Action	353	(1)
Group Registration and Disclosure Requirement	354	(2)
Restraints on Government Employment and Benefits	356	(1)
General Principles	356	(1)
Loyalty Programs and Loyalty Oaths	357	(1)
Loyalty Programs	357	(1)
Loyalty Oaths	357	(1)
Positive Oaths	357	(1)
Overbreadth	358	(1)
Vagueness	358	(1)
Individual Membership Disclosure: Bar Admission Requirements	358	(1)
Political Patronage	359	(2)
Legislative Investigations and Forced Disclosures	361	(1)
Investigatory Power	361	(1)
First Amendment Limitations	361	(1)
Disclosure Requirements and Self-Incrimination	361	(1)
Group Litigation	362	(1)
Freedom from Compelled Expression	362	(6)
Compelled Support	363	(1)
Compulsory Fees and Dues	364	(2)
Membership Discrimination	366	(2)
The Electoral Process	368	(12)
Political Speech and Association	368	(5)
Regulating Political Parties	373	(2)
Limitations on Contributions and Expenditures	375	(1)
Campaign Spending	375	(5)
Ballot Referenda	380	(1)
Forced Disclosure Requirements	380	(1)
Speech in the Local Forum	380	(27)
Controlling Speech Content	381	(1)
The Clear and Present Danger Test	381	(1)
The Early Formulation	381	(1)
The Doctrine Distorted	382	(1)
Advocacy v. Incitement	382	(1)
The Modern Test: Incitement and Danger	383	(2)
The Fighting Words Doctrine	385	(1)
Rationale	385	(1)
Overbreadth and Vagueness	385	(2)
``Protected'' Fighting Words	387	(1)
Hostile Audiences	388	(1)
Offensive and Abusive Language	388	(1)
True Threats	389	(1)
Equal Protection as a First Amendment Doctrine	390	(1)
Hate Speech	391	(1)
Regulating Public Property	392	(1)
The Nature of the Forum	392	(1)
Traditional Public Forum	393	(1)
Limited or Designated Public Forum	394	(1)
Nonpublic Forum	395	(3)
Privately-Owned Property	398	(1)
The Demand for Reasonable Regulation	399	(1)
The O'Brien Standards	399	(1)
Determining Reasonableness	399	(1)
Speech Plus	400	(1)
Sound Amplification and Interest Balancing	401	(1)
Protecting the Homeowner	402	(2)
Licensing, Prior Restraint and the Duty to Obey	404	(1)
Facial Validity---Vagueness and Overbreadth	405	(1)
The Duty to Obey	406	(1)
Procedural Standards	407	(1)
Symbolic Speech (Expressive Conduct)	407	(3)
Is the Conduct Communicative?	407	(1)
Is the Speech Protected?	407	(3)
Commercial Speech	410	(11)
Definition	410	(1)
Applying the First Amendment	411	(1)
Unprotected Commercial Speech	412	(1)
The Modern Test	412	(3)
Lawyer and Other Professional Advertising	415	(3)
Advertising Harmful Activity	418	(3)
Freedom of the Press	421	(23)
Defamation	422	(1)
Public Officials and Public Figures	422	(1)
Rationale	422	(1)
Who Is a Public Official?	423	(1)
Who Is a Public Figure?	423	(1)
All-Purpose Public Figures	423	(1)
Limited Purpose ``Vortex'' Public Figures	423	(2)
Actual Malice	425	(1)
Private Figures	426	(1)
Standards of Review	426	(1)
Presumed and Punitive Damages	426	(1)
Proof of Falsity	427	(1)
The Fact-Opinion Dichotomy	427	(1)
Privacy	428	(1)
Invasions of Privacy	428	(1)
False Light Privacy	428	(1)
Disclosure of Private Facts	428	(1)
Disclosure of Illegally Obtained Information	429	(2)
Right of Publicity	431	(1)
Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress	431	(1)
Newsgathering	432	(1)
Newsman's Privilege	432	(1)
Access to Public Information and Institutions	432	(1)
Prisons	432	(1)
Censorship of Mail	432	(1)
Interviewing Prisoners	433	(1)
Judicial Proceedings	433	(1)
Criminal Trials	433	(1)
Pretrial Proceedings	434	(1)
Newsroom Searches and Seizures	435	(1)
Cameras in the Courtroom	436	(1)
Copyright	436	(1)
Silencing Trial Participants	436	(1)
Media Ride Alongs	437	(1)
Regulation of Electronic Media	437	(1)
Regulating Broadcasting	437	(2)
Regulating Cable Television	439	(3)
Regulating the Internet	442	(1)
Public Access to the Media	443	(1)
Public Access to the Electronic Media	443	(1)
Fairness Doctrine	443	(1)
A Right of Access	443	(1)
Public Access to the Print Media	444	(1)
Obscenity	444	(12)
No First Amendment Protection	444	(1)
Rationality Satisfied	444	(1)
A Matter of Definition	444	(1)
The Modern Definition	445	(1)
Contemporary Community Standards	445	(1)
No National Community Standard	445	(1)
Federal Jury Standard	445	(1)
Identifying ``Community'' Members	445	(1)
Experts	445	(1)
Appellate Review	446	(1)
Defining the Relevant Audience	446	(1)
The Average Person	446	(1)
Variable Obscenity: Minors and Deviants	446	(1)
The Demand for Specificity	446	(1)
Vagueness	446	(1)
Overbreadth	447	(1)
Pandering	447	(1)
Racketeering Laws	448	(1)
Serious Value	448	(1)
Privacy and Obscenity	448	(1)
Civil Control of Obscenity and Indecency	449	(1)
Prior Restraints	449	(1)
Content-Neutral Regulation	449	(1)
Vagueness and Overbreadth	450	(2)
Broadcasting and Indecent Speech	452	(1)
Child Pornography	452	(2)
Procedural Fairness	454	(1)
Administrative Regulation	454	(1)
Judicial Censorship	455	(1)
Search and Seizure	456	(1)
Special Contexts	456	(10)
Political Activity by Government Employees	456	(4)
The Academic Forum	460	(1)
Library Censorship	460	(1)
Student Speech	460	(2)
Academic Freedom	462	(1)
Subsidized Speech	462	(4)
Review Questions	466	(7)
Freedom of Religion	473	(42)
The Meaning of the ``Establishment'' Clause	474	(26)
Religion in the Schools	475	(1)
Released Time	475	(1)
Prayers, Bible Reading, Moments of Silence and Devotional Exercises	476	(2)
Teaching Religious Values	478	(1)
Curriculum Control	478	(1)
Covert Religious Purpose	479	(1)
Equal Access	479	(4)
Financial Assistance to Religious Institutions	483	(1)
Public Benefits	483	(1)
Financial Aid to Schools	484	(1)
Elementary-Secondary v. Higher Education	485	(1)
Testing, Recordkeeping, and Other Services and Equipment	486	(3)
Tax Relief and Tuition Benefits	489	(3)
Other Establishment Contexts	492	(1)
Blue Laws	492	(1)
Tax Exemptions	493	(1)
Social Welfare Programs	493	(1)
Legislative Prayer	494	(1)
Religious Displays	494	(4)
Denominational Preferences	498	(1)
Internal Church Disputes	499	(1)
Institutionalized Persons	499	(1)
The Meaning of the ``Free Exercise'' Clause	500	(10)
Belief-Conduct	501	(1)
Centrality and Sincerity	501	(1)
General Indirect Burdens	502	(1)
Blue Laws	503	(1)
Conditioning Public Welfare Benefits	503	(2)
Compelled Expression	505	(2)
Noncoercive Laws	507	(1)
Proscribed Religious Practices	508	(2)
The Meaning of Religion	510	(1)
Conscientious Objection	511	(1)
Review Questions	511	(4)
State Action	515	(16)
The State Action Requirement	516	(1)
Thirteenth Amendment	516	(1)
Fourteenth Amendment	516	(1)
Fifteenth Amendment	517	(1)
The Present Standard---State Responsibility	517	(1)
Official Misconduct and Joint Action	517	(1)
Action Contrary to Law	517	(1)
Public Administration	517	(1)
Joint Action	518	(1)
Public Functions	518	(2)
White Primaries	518	(1)
Company Towns	519	(1)
Traditionally and Exclusively Sovereign	519	(1)
Significant State Involvement	520	(4)
Symbiotic Relationships	520	(2)
Government Regulation and Licensing	522	(1)
Government Financial Support	523	(1)
Encouragement, Authorization and Approval	524	(4)
Neutral Law Enforcement	524	(1)
Involuntary Discrimination	524	(1)
Significant Encouragement	524	(1)
Authorization and Approval	525	(3)
Review Questions	528	(3)
Congressional Legislation in Aid of Civil Rights and Liberties	531	(132)
In General: Federal Legislative Jurisdiction	532	(1)
Commerce Clause	532	(1)
Spending Power	532	(1)
Federal Rights	532	(1)
Authority to Enforce Amendments	532	(1)
Enforcing the Thirteenth Amendment	533	(1)
Private Action Covered	533	(1)
Badges of Slavery	533	(1)
Enforcing the Fourteenth Amendment	534	(8)
Scope of the Enforcement Power	534	(2)
Constitutional Limits on Enforcement Powers	536	(1)
Tenth Amendment	536	(1)
Sovereign Immunity	537	(3)
Private Action	540	(1)
Historic Barrier	540	(1)
Basis for Expansion	541	(1)
The Expansionist Approach Rejected	541	(1)
Thirteenth Amendment	542	(1)
Enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment	542	(1)
Constitutional Text	542	(1)
Enforcement Clause	542	(1)
Review Questions	543	(4)
APPENDICES
A. Answers to Review Questions	547	(36)
B. Practice Examination	583	(20)
C. Text Correlation Chart	603	(12)
D. Glossary	615	(30)
E. Table of Cases	645	(18)
F. Index	663