Developmental Biology

by Gilbert, Scott F.

• ISBN13: 9780878932580
• ISBN10: 0878932585
• Edition: CD
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-03-01
• Publisher: Sinauer Associates Inc

Summary

Explores the organismal, cellular, and molecular aspects of animal development. Includes new material on vertebrate limb cell specification and the developmental origins of feathers, jaws, and teeth during evolution. Includes a new chapter on the medical implications of developmental biology, such as the identification of genetic defects that affect development. Previous ed: c2000.

Table of Contents

part 1 Principles of developmental biology
Developmental biology: The anatomical tradition	3	(22)
The Questions of Developmental Biology	4	(1)
Approaches to Developmental Biology	5	(1)
The Anatomical Approach	5	(9)
Comparative embryology	5	(1)
Epigenesis and preformation	6	(2)
Naming the parts: The primary germ layers and early organs	8	(1)
The four principles of Karl Ernst von Baer	8	(2)
Fate mapping the embryo	10	(3)
Cell migration	13	(1)
Evolutionary Embryology	14	(2)
Embryonic homologies	15	(1)
Medical Embryology and Teratology	16	(2)
Mathematical Modeling of Development	18	(7)
The mathematics of organismal growth	18	(1)
The mathematics of patterning	19	(6)
Life cycles and the evolution of developmental patterns	25	(26)
The Circle of Life: The Stages of Animal Development	25	(1)
The Frog Life Cycle	26	(4)
The Evolution of Developmental Patterns in Unicellular Protists	30	(3)
Control of developmental morphogenesis: The role of the nucleus	30	(2)
Unicellular protists and the origins of sexual reproduction	32	(1)
Multicellularity: The Evolution of Differentiation	33	(11)
The Volvocaceans	34	(2)
Sidelights & Speculations: Sex and Individuality in Volvox	36	(3)
Differentiation and morphogenesis in Dictyostelium: Cell adhesion	39	(3)
Sidelights & Speculations: Rules of Evidence I	42	(1)
Differentiation in Dictyostelium	43	(1)
Developmental Patterns among the Metazoa	44	(7)
The diploblasts	46	(1)
Protostomes and deuterostomes	46	(5)
Principles of experimental embryology	51	(30)
Environmental Developmental Biology	51	(5)
Environmental sex determination	52	(1)
Adaptation of embryos and larvae to their environments	52	(4)
The Developmental Dynamics of Cell Specification	56	(13)
Autonomous specification	56	(2)
Conditional specification	58	(9)
Sidelights & Speculations: Rules of Evidence II	67	(1)
Stem cells and commitment	68	(1)
Syncytial specification	69	(1)
Morphogenesis and Cell Adhesion	69	(12)
Differential cell affinity	70	(1)
The thermodynamic model of cell interactions	71	(3)
Cadherins and cell adhesion	74	(7)
The genetic core of development	81	(26)
The Embryological Origins of the Gene Theory	81	(4)
Nucleus or cytoplasm: Which controls heredity?	81	(2)
The split between embryology and genetics	83	(1)
Early attempts at developmental genetics	84	(1)
Evidence for Genomic Equivalence	85	(7)
Amphibian cloning: The restriction of nuclear potency	85	(1)
Amphibian cloning: The totipotency of somatic cells	86	(1)
Cloning mammals	87	(2)
Sidelights & Speculations: Why Clone Mammals?	89	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: The Exception to the Rule: Immunoglobulin Genes	90	(2)
Differential Gene Expression	92	(1)
RNA Localization Techniques	93	(5)
Northern blotting	93	(1)
Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction	93	(3)
Microarrays and macroarrays	96	(1)
In situ hybridization	97	(1)
Determining the Function of Genes During Development	98	(6)
Transgenic cells and organisms	98	(3)
Determining the function of a message: Antisense RNA	101	(3)
Coda	104	(3)
The paradigm of differential gene expression	107	(36)
Differential Gene Transcription	107	(14)
Anatomy of the gene: Exons and introns	107	(4)
Anatomy of the gene: Promoters and enhancers	111	(3)
Transcription factors	114	(3)
Transcription factor cascades	117	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: Studying DNA Regulatory Elements	118	(2)
Silencers	120	(1)
Methylation Pattern and the Control of Transcription	121	(6)
DNA methylation and gene activity	121	(1)
Chromatin modification	122	(1)
Insulators	123	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: Genomic Imprinting	123	(1)
Transcriptional regulation of an entire chromosome: Dosage compensation	124	(2)
Sidelights & Speculations: The Mechanisms of X Chromosome Inactivation	126	(1)
Differential RNA Processing	127	(5)
Control of early development by nuclear RNA selection	128	(1)
Creating families of proteins through differential nRNA splicing	129	(2)
Sidelights & Speculations: Differential nRNA Processing and Drosophila Sex Determination	131	(1)
Control of Gene Expression at the Level of Translation	132	(11)
Differential mRNA longevity	132	(1)
Selective inhibition of mRNA translation	132	(2)
Control of RNA expression by cytoplasmic localization	134	(1)
Posttranslational regulation of gene expression	135	(8)
Cell-cell communication in development	143	(40)
Induction and Competence	143	(6)
Cascades of induction: Reciprocal and sequential inductive events	145	(1)
Instructive and permissive interactions	145	(2)
Epithelial-mesenchymal interactions	147	(2)
Paracrine Factors	149	(5)
The fibroblast growth factors	150	(1)
The Hedgehog family	151	(1)
The Wnt family	152	(1)
The TGF-β superfamily	153	(1)
Other paracrine factors	153	(1)
Cell Surface Receptors and Their Signal Transduction Pathways	154	(10)
The receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) pathway	154	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: The RTK Pathway and Cell-to-Cell Induction	155	(4)
The Smad pathway	159	(1)
The JAK-STAT pathway	159	(2)
The Wnt pathway	161	(1)
The Hedgehog pathway	161	(3)
Cell Death Pathways	164	(2)
Juxtacrine Signaling	166	(6)
The Notch pathway: Juxtaposed ligands and receptors	166	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: Cell-Cell Interactions and Chance in the Determination of Cell Types	167	(1)
The extracellular matrix as a source of critical developmental signals	168	(3)
Direct transmission of signals through gap junctions	171	(1)
Cross-Talk between Pathways	172	(1)
Maintenance of the Differentiated State	173	(1)
Coda	174	(9)
part 2 Early embryonic development
Fertilization: Beginning a new organism	183	(38)
Structure of the Gametes	183	(6)
Sperm	183	(3)
The egg	186	(3)
Recognition of Egg and Sperm	189	(8)
Sperm attraction: Action at a distance	189	(2)
The acrosome reaction in sea urchins	191	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: Action at a Distance: Mammalian Gametes	192	(2)
Species-specific recognition in sea urchins	194	(1)
Gamete binding and recognition in mammals	195	(2)
Gamete Fusion and the Prevention of Polyspermy	197	(6)
Fusion of the egg and sperm cell membranes	197	(1)
The prevention of polyspermy	198	(5)
The Activation of Egg Metabolism	203	(6)
Early responses	204	(2)
Sidelights & Speculations: The Activation of Gamete Metabolism	206	(2)
Late responses	208	(1)
Fusion of the Genetic Material	209	(1)
Fusion of genetic material in sea urchins	209	(1)
Fusion of genetic material in mammals	209	(1)
Rearrangement of the Egg Cytoplasm	210	(11)
Sidelights & Speculations: The Nonequivalence of Mammalian Pronuclei	212	(9)
Early development in selected invertebrates	221	(42)
An Introduction To Early Developmental Processes	221	(1)
Cleavage	221	(5)
From fertilization to cleavage	222	(1)
The cytoskeletal mechanisms of mitosis	223	(1)
Patterns of embryonic cleavage	224	(2)
Specification of cell fates during cleavage	226	(1)
Gastrulation	226	(1)
Cell Specification and Axis Formation	226	(1)
The Early Development Of Sea Urchins	227	(1)
Cleavage in Sea Urchins	227	(6)
Blastula formation	227	(1)
Fate maps and the determination of sea urchin blastomeres	228	(5)
Sea Urchin Gastrulation	233	(6)
Ingression of primary mesenchyme	233	(3)
First stage of archenteron invagination	236	(1)
Second and third stages of archenteron invagination	237	(2)
The Early Development Of Snails	239	(1)
Cleavage in Snail Embryos	239	(6)
Fate map of Ilyanassa obsoleta	241	(1)
The polar lobe: Cell determination and axis formation	242	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: Adaptation by Modifying Embryonic Cleavage	242	(3)
Gastrulation in Snails	245	(1)
Early Development In Tunicates	246	(1)
Tunicate Cleavage	246	(4)
The tunicate fate map	246	(1)
Autonomous and conditional specification of tunicate blastomeres	247	(2)
Specification of the embryonic axes	249	(1)
Gastrulation in Tunicates	250	(1)
Early Development Of The Nematode Caenorhabditis Elegans	251	(1)
Why C. elegans?	251	(1)
Cleavage and Axis Formation in C. elegans	251	(6)
Rotational cleavage of the C. elegans egg	251	(2)
Anterior-posterior axis formation	253	(1)
Formation of the dorsal-ventral and right-left axes	253	(1)
Control of blastomere identity	254	(3)
Integration of autonomous and conditional specification: The differentiation of the C. elegans pharynx	257	(1)
Gastrulation in C. elegans	257	(1)
Coda	258	(5)
The genetics of axis specification in Drosophila	263	(42)
Early Drosophila Development	263	(1)
Cleavage	264	(2)
The mid-blastula transition	265	(1)
Gastrulation	266	(2)
The Origins Of Anterior-Posterior Polarity	268	(2)
The Maternal Effect Genes	270	(8)
Embryological evidence of polarity regulation by oocyte cytoplasm	270	(1)
The molecular model: Protein gradients in the early embryo	270	(3)
The anterior organizing center: The Bicoid gradient	273	(3)
The posterior organizing center: Localizing and activating nanos	276	(1)
The terminal gene group	277	(1)
The Segmentation Genes	278	(7)
The gap genes	279	(2)
The pair-rule genes	281	(2)
The segment polarity genes	283	(2)
The Homeotic Selector Genes	285	(5)
Patterns of homeotic gene expression	285	(1)
Initiating the patterns of homeotic gene expression	286	(2)
Maintaining the patterns of homeotic gene expression	288	(1)
Realisator genes	288	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: The Homeodomain Proteins	289	(1)
The Generation Of Dorsal-Ventral Polarity	290	(1)
Dorsal: The Morphogenetic Agent for Dorsal-Ventral Polarity	291	(6)
Translocation of Dorsal to the nucleus	291	(2)
The signal cascade	293	(1)
Establishing the dorsal patterning gradient	294	(3)
Axes and Organ Primordia: The Cartesian Coordinate Model	297	(1)
Coda	297	(8)
Early development and axis formation in amphibians	305	(40)
Early Amphibian Development	305	(1)
Cleavage in Amphibians	305	(2)
Amphibian Gastrulation	307	(10)
The Xenopus fate map	308	(1)
Cell movements during amphibian gastrulation	309	(1)
The mid-blastula transition: Preparing for gastrulation	310	(1)
Positioning the blastopore	311	(1)
Invagination and involution	312	(1)
The convergent extension of the dorsal mesoderm	313	(2)
Migration of the involuting mesoderm	315	(1)
Epiboly of the ectoderm	315	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: Fibronectin and the Pathways for Mesodermal Migration	316	(1)
Axis Formation In Amphibians: The Phenomenon Of The Organizer	317	(1)
The Progressive Determination of the Amphibian Axes	317	(3)
Hans Spemann and Hilde Mangold: Primary Embryonic Induction	320	(1)
Mechanisms of Axis Determination in Amphibians	321	(4)
The origin of the Nieuwkoop center	321	(1)
The molecular biology of the Nieuwkoop center	322	(3)
The Functions of the Organizer	325	(9)
The diffusible proteins of the organizer I: The BMP inhibitors	327	(3)
The diffusible proteins of the organizer II: The Wnt inhibitors	330	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: BMP4 and Geoffroy's Lobster	330	(2)
Conversion of the ectoderm into neural plate cells	332	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: Competence, Bias, and Neurulation	333	(1)
The Regional Specificity of Induction	334	(3)
The determination of regional differences	334	(1)
The posterior transforming proteins: Wnt signals and retinoic acid	334	(2)
The anterior transforming proteins: Insulin-like growth factors	336	(1)
Specifying the Left-Right Axis	337	(8)
The early development of vertebrates: Fish, birds, and mammals	345	(44)
Early Development In Fish	345	(2)
Cleavage in Fish Eggs	347	(2)
Gastrulation in Fish Embryos	349	(2)
The formation of germ layers	349	(2)
Axis Formation in Fish Embryos	351	(3)
Dorsal-ventral axis formation: The embryonic shield	351	(1)
The fish Nieuwkoop center	352	(1)
Anterior-posterior patterning	353	(1)
Early Development In Birds	354	(1)
Cleavage in Bird Eggs	354	(2)
Gastrulation of the Avian Embryo	356	(4)
The hypoblast	356	(1)
The primitive streak	356	(2)
Epiboly of the ectoderm	358	(2)
Axis Formation in the Chick Embryo	360	(3)
The role of pH in forming the dorsal-ventral axis	360	(1)
The role of gravity in forming the anterior-posterior axis	360	(3)
Left-Right Axis Formation	363	(1)
Early Mammalian Development	363	(1)
Cleavage in Mammals	363	(5)
The unique nature of mammalian cleavage	364	(2)
Compaction	366	(2)
Escape from the zona pellucida	368	(1)
Gastrulation in Mammals	368	(7)
Modifications for development within another organism	368	(2)
Formation of extraembryonic membranes	370	(3)
Sidelights & Speculations: Twins and Embryonic Stem Cells	373	(2)
Mammalian Anterior-Posterior Axis Formation	375	(5)
Two signaling centers	375	(2)
Patterning the anterior-posterior axis: The Hox code hypothesis	377	(1)
Expression of Hox genes along the dorsal axis	377	(1)
Experimental analysis of the Hox code	377	(3)
The Dorsal-Ventral and Right-Left Axes in Mice	380	(9)
The dorsal-ventral axis	380	(1)
The left-right axis	381	(8)
part 3 Later embryonic development
The emergence of the ectoderm: The central nervous system and the epidermis	389	(38)
Establishing the Neural Cells	391	(2)
Formation of the Neural Tube	393	(5)
Primary neurulation	393	(5)
Secondary neurulation	398	(1)
Differentiation of the Neural Tube	398	(4)
The anterior-posterior axis	398	(3)
The dorsal-ventral axis	401	(1)
Tissue Architecture of the Central Nervous System	402	(8)
Spinal cord and medulla organization	403	(1)
Cerebellar organization	404	(1)
Cerebral organization	405	(3)
Sidelights & Speculations: The Unique Development of the Human Brain	408	(1)
Adult neural stem cells	409	(1)
Differentiation of Neurons	410	(3)
Development of the Vertebrate Eye	413	(3)
The dynamics of optic development	413	(1)
Neural retina differentiation	414	(1)
Lens and cornea differentiation	414	(2)
The Epidermis and the Origin of Cutaneous Structures	416	(11)
The origin of epidermal cells	416	(2)
Cutaneous appendages	418	(1)
Developmental genetics of hair formation	419	(8)
Neural crest cells and axonal specificity	427	(38)
The Neural Crest	427	(1)
Specification and Regionalization of the Neural Crest	427	(2)
The Trunk Neural Crest	429	(5)
Migration pathways of trunk neural crest cells	429	(2)
The mechanisms of trunk neural crest migration	431	(1)
Trunk neural crest cell differentiation	432	(2)
The Cranial Neural Crest	434	(7)
Cranial neural crest cell migration and specification: The first wave	436	(1)
Intramembranous ossification	437	(1)
Innervation of the placodes: The second wave of cranial neural crest migration	438	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: Tooth Development	439	(2)
The Cardiac Neural Crest	441	(1)
Neuronal Specification And Axonal Specificity	442	(1)
The Generation of Neuronal Diversity	442	(2)
Pattern Generation in the Nervous System	444	(13)
Cell adhesion and contact guidance by attractive and permissive molecules	445	(1)
Guidance by specific growth cone repulsion	445	(1)
Guidance by diffusible molecules	446	(4)
Target selection	450	(1)
Forming the synapse: Activity-dependent development	451	(1)
Differential survival after innervation: Neurotrophic factors	451	(2)
Paths to glory: Migration of the retinal ganglion axons	453	(4)
The Development of Behaviors: Constancy and Plasticity	457	(8)
Paraxial and intermediate mesoderm	465	(26)
Paraxial Mesoderm: The Somites And Their Derivatives	466	(1)
The Formation of Somites	467	(6)
The periodicity of somite formation	467	(1)
The separation of somites from the unsegmented mesoderm	468	(1)
The epithelialization of the somite	469	(2)
Specification of the somite along the anterior-posterior axis	471	(1)
The derivatives of the somite	471	(1)
Determination of the sclerotome and dermatome	472	(1)
Determination of the myotome	473	(1)
Myogenesis: The Development of Muscle	473	(1)
Specification and differentiation by the myogenic bHLH proteins	473	(1)
Muscle cell fusion	474	(1)
Osteogenesis: The Development of Bones	474	(3)
Endochondral ossification	475	(2)
Osteoclasts	477	(1)
Intermediate Mesoderm: The Urogenital System	477	(1)
The Specification of the Intermediate Mesoderm	478	(1)
Progression of Kidney Types	479	(1)
Reciprocal Interactions of Developing Kidney Tissues	480	(11)
The mechanisms of reciprocal induction	481	(10)
Lateral plate mesoderm and endoderm	491	(32)
Lateral Plate Mesoderm	491	(1)
The Heart	492	(8)
Specification of heart tissue and fusion of heart rudiments	492	(6)
Sidelights & Speculations: Redirecting Blood Flow in the Newborn Mammal	498	(2)
Formation of Blood Vessels	500	(4)
Constraints on the construction of blood vessels	500	(1)
Vasculogenesis: The initial formation of blood vessels	501	(2)
Angiogenesis: Sprouting of blood vessels and remodeling of vascular beds	503	(1)
Mechanisms of Arterial and Venous Differentiation	504	(1)
The Development of Blood Cells	505	(5)
The stem cell concept	505	(1)
Sites of hematopoiesis	506	(3)
Committed stem cells and their fates	509	(1)
Hematopoietic inductive microenvironments	509	(1)
Endoderm	510	(1)
The Pharynx	511	(1)
The Digestive Tube and Its Derivatives	511	(4)
Specification of the gut tissue	512	(1)
Liver, pancreas, and gallbladder	512	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: Blood and Guts: The Specification of Liver and Pancreas	513	(2)
The Respiratory Tube	515	(2)
The Extraembryonic Membranes	517	(6)
The amnion and chorion	517	(1)
The allantois and yolk sac	517	(6)
Development of the tetrapod limb	523	(24)
Formation of the Limb Bud	524	(5)
Specification of the limb fields: Hox genes and retinoic acid	524	(1)
Induction of the early limb bud: Wnt proteins and fibroblast growth factors	525	(1)
Specification of forelimb or hindlimb: Tbx4 and Tbx5	526	(3)
Generating the Proximal-Distal Axis of the Limb	529	(5)
The apical ectodermal ridge	529	(1)
FGFs in the induction and maintenance of the AER	530	(1)
Specifying the limb mesoderm: Determining the proximal-distal polarity of the limb	531	(1)
Hox genes, meis genes, and the specification of the proximal-distal axis	532	(2)
Specification of the Anterior-Posterior Limb Axis	534	(3)
The zone of polarizing activity	534	(1)
Sonic hedgehog defines the ZPA	535	(1)
Specification of the ZPA	535	(1)
Specifying digit identity through cell interactions initiated by Sonic hedgehog	536	(1)
Generation of the Dorsal-Ventral Axis	537	(1)
Coordinating the Three Axes	537	(1)
Cell Death and the Formation of Digits and Joints	538	(2)
Sculpting the autopod	538	(1)
Forming the joints	539	(1)
Continued Limb Growth: Epiphyseal Plates	540	(7)
Sidelights & Speculations: Control of Cartilage Maturation at the Growth Plate	541	(6)
Sex determination	547	(28)
Chromosomal Sex Determination In Mammals	548	(1)
Primary and Secondary Sex Determination in Mammals	548	(1)
The Developing Gonads	549	(2)
The Mechanisms of Mammalian Primary Sex Determination	551	(5)
SRY: The Y chromosome sex determinant	551	(1)
SOX9: An autosomal testis-determining gene	552	(1)
Fibroblast growth factor 9	553	(1)
SF1: The link between SRY and the male developmental pathways	554	(1)
DAX1: A potential testis-suppressing gene on the X chromosome	554	(2)
WNT4: A potential ovary-determining gene on an autosome	556	(1)
Secondary Sex Determination: Hormonal Regulation of the Sexual Phenotype	556	(5)
Testosterone and dihydrotestosterone	557	(1)
Anti-Mullerian duct hormone	558	(1)
Estrogen	559	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: Sex Determination and Behaviors	559	(2)
Chromosomal Sex Determination In Drosophila	561	(1)
The Sexual Development Pathway	561	(1)
Mechanisms of Sex Determination	562	(5)
The sex-lethal gene as the pivot for sex determination	562	(1)
The transformer genes	563	(1)
Doublesex: The switch gene of sex determination	564	(3)
Environmental Sex Determination	567	(1)
Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination in Reptiles	567	(1)
Aromatase and the production of estrogens	567	(1)
Sex reversal, aromatase, and conservation biology	568	(1)
Location-Dependent Sex Determination in Bonellia and Crepidula	568	(7)
Metamorphosis regeneration, and aging	575	(38)
Metamorphosis: The Hormonal Reactivation of Development	575	(1)
Amphibian Metamorphosis	576	(7)
Morphological changes associated with metamorphosis	576	(1)
Biochemical changes associated with metamorphosis	577	(1)
Hormonal control of amphibian metamorphosis	578	(2)
Regionally specific developmental programs	580	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: Variations on the Theme of Amphibian Metamorphosis	581	(2)
Metamorphosis in Insects	583	(9)
Types of insect metamorphosis	583	(1)
Imaginal discs	584	(3)
Determination of the wing imaginal discs	587	(1)
Hormonal control of insect metamorphosis	588	(2)
The molecular biology of 20-hydroxyecdysone activity	590	(2)
Regeneration	592	(1)
Epimorphic Regeneration of Salamander Limbs	592	(5)
Formation of the apical ectodermal cap and regeneration blastema	593	(1)
Proliferation of the blastema cells: The requirement for nerves	594	(1)
Proliferation of the blastema cells: The requirement for FGF10	595	(1)
Pattern formation in the regeneration blastema	595	(2)
Morphallactic Regeneration in Hydra	597	(4)
The head activation gradient	597	(1)
The head inhibition gradient	598	(1)
The hypostome as an ``organizer''	598	(2)
The basal disc activation and inhibition gradients	600	(1)
Compensatory Regeneration in the Mammalian Liver	601	(1)
Aging: The Biology of Senescence	601	(12)
Maximum life span and life expectancy	601	(1)
Causes of aging	602	(1)
Genetically programmed aging	603	(10)
The saga of the germ line	613	(36)
Germ Plasm and the Determination of the Primordial Germ Cells	613	(4)
Germ cell determination in nematodes	614	(1)
Germ cell determination in insects	615	(1)
Germ cell determination in amphibians	616	(1)
The inert genome hypothesis	617	(1)
Germ Cell Migration	617	(7)
Germ cell migration in amphibians	617	(1)
Germ cell formation and migration in mammals	618	(3)
Sidelights & Speculations: EG Cells, ES Cells, and Teratocarcinomas	621	(1)
Germ cell migration in birds and reptiles	622	(1)
Germ cell migration in Drosophila	622	(2)
Meiosis	624	(4)
Sidelights & Speculations: Big Decisions: Mitosis or Meiosis? Sperm or Egg?	627	(1)
Spermatogenesis	628	(3)
Forming the haploid spermatid	628	(2)
Spermiogenesis: The differentiation of the sperm	630	(1)
Oogenesis	631	(18)
Oogenic meiosis	631	(1)
Maturation of the oocyte in amphibians	632	(1)
Completion of amphibian meiosis: Progesterone and fertilization	633	(1)
Gene transcription in oocytes	634	(3)
Meroistic oogenesis in insects	637	(1)
Maturation of the mammalian oocyte	638	(11)
part 4 Ramifications of developmental biology
An overview of plant development	649	(34)
Plant Life Cycles	651	(3)
Gamete Production in Angiosperms	654	(4)
Pollen	654	(1)
The ovary	655	(1)
Pollination	655	(3)
Fertilization	658	(1)
Embryonic Development	659	(5)
Experimental studies	659	(1)
Embryogenesis	659	(5)
Dormancy	664	(1)
Germination	664	(1)
Vegetative Growth	665	(6)
Meristems	665	(2)
Root development	667	(1)
Shoot development	667	(1)
Leaf development	668	(3)
The Vegetative-to-Reproductive Transition	671	(7)
Control of the reproductive transition	672	(2)
Inflorescence meristems	674	(1)
Floral meristem identity genes	675	(1)
Organ identity genes: The ABC model	676	(2)
Senescence	678	(5)
Medical implications of developmental biology	683	(38)
Infertility	683	(1)
Diagnosing Infertility	683	(1)
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)	684	(2)
The IVF procedure	684	(1)
Variations on IVF	685	(1)
Success rates and complications of IVF	685	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: Ethical Issues and Assisted Reproductive Technology	686	(1)
Genetic Errors Of Human Development	686	(1)
Identifying the Genes for Human Developmental Anomalies	687	(2)
The Nature of Human Syndromes	689	(2)
Pleiotropy	689	(1)
Genetic heterogeneity	690	(1)
Phenotypic variability	690	(1)
Mechanisms of dominance	691	(1)
Gene Expression and Human Disease	691	(2)
Inborn errors in transcriptional regulation	691	(1)
Inborn errors of nuclear RNA processing	692	(1)
Inborn errors of translation	692	(1)
Preimplantation Genetics	693	(1)
Amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, and preimplantation genetics	693	(1)
Sperm separation and sex selection	694	(1)
Teratogenesis: Environmental Assaults On Human Development	694	(1)
Teratogenic Agents	695	(8)
Retinoic acid as a teratogen	696	(1)
Alcohol as a teratogen	697	(1)
Endocrine disruptors	698	(2)
Other teratogenic agents	700	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: The DES Story: Is It Happening Again?	701	(2)
Developmental Biology And The Future Of Medicine	703	(1)
Developmental Cancer Therapies	703	(2)
Cancer as a disease of altered development	703	(1)
Differentiation therapy	703	(1)
Angiogenesis inhibition	704	(1)
Gene Therapy	705	(3)
Somatic cell gene therapy	707	(1)
Germ line gene therapy	707	(1)
Stem Cells and Therapeutic Cloning	708	(13)
Cloning	708	(1)
Embryonic stem cells and therapeutic cloning	708	(1)
Adult stem cells	709	(2)
Transgenic stem cells	711	(1)
Regeneration therapy	712	(9)
Environmental regulation of animal development	721	(30)
The Environment as Part of Normal Development	721	(6)
Gravity and pressure	722	(1)
Developmental symbiosis	722	(3)
Larval settlement	725	(1)
Sex in its season	726	(1)
Diapause: Suspended development	727	(1)
Phenotypic Plasticity: Control of Development by Environmental Conditions	727	(10)
Polyphenism and reaction norms	727	(1)
Seasonal polyphenism in butterflies	728	(2)
Nutritional polyphenism	730	(1)
Environment-dependent sex determination	731	(1)
Polyphenisms for alternative environmental conditions	732	(1)
Sidelights & Speculations: Genetic Assimilation	733	(1)
Predator-induced polyphenisms	734	(2)
Sidelights & Speculations: Mammalian Immunity as a Predator-Induced Response	736	(1)
Learning: An Environmentally Adaptive Nervous System	737	(2)
The formation of new neurons	737	(1)
Experiential changes in mammalian visual pathways	737	(2)
Endocrine Disruptors	739	(4)
Environmental estrogens	740	(2)
Environmental thyroid hormone disruptors	742	(1)
Chains of causation	742	(1)
Developmental Biology Meets the Real World	743	(8)
Sidelights & Speculations: Deformed Frogs	744	(7)
Developmental mechanisms of evolutionary change	751	(34)
``Unity of Type'' and ``Conditions of Existence''	751	(3)
Charles Darwin's synthesis	751	(1)
``Life's splendid drama''	752	(1)
The search for the Urbilaterian ancestor	753	(1)
Hox Genes: Descent with Modification	754	(9)
Sidelights & Speculations: How the Chordates Got a Head	761	(2)
Homologous Pathways of Development	763	(3)
Instructions for forming the central nervous system	763	(1)
Instructions for appendage formation	764	(2)
Modularity: The Prerequisite for Evolution through Development	766	(3)
Dissociation: Heterochrony and allometry	766	(2)
Duplication and divergence	768	(1)
Co-option	768	(1)
Generating Evolutionary Novelty	769	(4)
Developmental Constraints	773	(4)
Physical constraints	773	(1)
Morphogenetic constraints	774	(1)
Phyletic constraints	774	(2)
Sidelights & Speculations: Canalization and the Release of Developmental Constraints	776	(1)
A New Evolutionary Synthesis	777	(8)
Sources for Chapter-Opening Quotations	785	(2)
Author Index	787	(18)
Subject Index	805