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9780471984474

Digital Diffractive Optics An Introduction to Planar Diffractive Optics and Related Technology

by Kress, Bernard C.; Meyrueis, Patrick
  • ISBN13:

    9780471984474

  • ISBN10:

    0471984477

  • Edition: 1st
  • Format: Hardcover
  • Copyright: 2000-11-02
  • Publisher: WILEY
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Summary

Diffractive optical elements (DOEs) are becoming more and more widely used in a braod range of fields, including telecommunications, optical computing, consumer electronics, laser material processing and the biomedical sciences, to manipulate light through micro-optical systems. In order to get the most out of such DOEs, knowledge of the design process, fabrication, packaging in a particular system, and operation is required. Digital Diffractive Optics discusses in detail the design and simulation of DOEs, before considering the main fabrication techniques. The increasingly important CAD/CAM tool requirements for the production of DOEs are covered, and a chapter is devoted to the crucial area of systematic fabrication error compensation. Finally, the integration and use of DOEs in a number of different systems, including various opto-electronic and opto-mechanical systems, are discussed. Digital Diffractive Optics will be of great interest to all those involved in the fields of optical engineering and photonics. It presents a clear view of the whole process, from design to fabrication and application, without overstressing the, often complex, mathematics, and will thus be accessible to postgraduate students and those entering the field, as well as more experienced engineers and scientists.

Author Biography

Bernard has published numerous books and book chapters on micro-optics and has more than 30 patents granted worldwide. He is a short course instructor for the SPIE and was involved in numerous SPIE conferences as technical committee member and conference co-chair.

Table of Contents

Preface xv
Acknowledgments xviii
Acronyms xix
Industrial Property xxiii
Introduction: From Diffraction to Diffractive Optics 1(1)
Introduction
1(3)
Huygens-Fresnel Diffraction
4(1)
Fraunhofer and Fresnel Diffraction
5(3)
Examples of Far-Field Diffraction Patterns
8(7)
Long, Narrow Slit Example
8(2)
Double Slit Example
10(1)
Diffraction Grating
11(2)
Fraunhofer Diffraction for a Rectangular Aperture
13(1)
Fraunhofer Diffraction for a Circular Aperture
14(1)
Conclusion
15(2)
Design and Simulation of Diffractive Optical Elements
17(113)
Introduction
17(1)
Diffraction Modelling of DOEs: Theoretical Background
17(33)
Diffraction of Monochromatic Waves
17(1)
Review of Scalar Diffraction Theory for DOE Modelling
18(4)
Limitations of the Kirchhoff Model
22(2)
Review of Rigorous Diffraction Models
24(2)
Grating Description
26(1)
Lord Rayleigh's Early Propositions
27(1)
Integral Method
27(1)
Differential Method
28(2)
Modal Approach
30(1)
Rigorous Coupled Wave Analysis Approach
30(1)
Two-Wave Theory
31(1)
Raman-Nath's Method
31(1)
Kogelnik's Method
31(1)
Analytical Methods
31(1)
Rytov's Method
32(1)
Effective Medium Theory (EMT)
32(1)
Farn's Method
32(2)
Review of Intermediate Diffraction Models
34(1)
Optimum Etch Depth
35(1)
Geometrical Shadow Duty Cycle
36(1)
Theoretical Aspects of DOE Performance in the Paraxial Domain
37(1)
Energetic Considerations of Scalar Diffraction
37(1)
Diffraction Efficiency for Amplitude DOEs
38(1)
Diffraction Efficiency for Multilevel Surface Relief DOEs
39(3)
Diffraction Efficiency for Analog Surface Relief DOEs
42(4)
Geometric Considerations of Scalar Diffraction
46(3)
Physical DOE Layout Considerations for Diffraction Efficiency
49(1)
Numerical Implementation Techniques
50(12)
Numerical Implementation of Scalar Theory
50(1)
Object Sampling Considerations
51(1)
Finite Pixel Size Considerations
52(4)
From the DFT to the FFT Algorithm
56(1)
CPU Time Considerations
56(1)
Numerical Implementation of Rigorous Diffraction Theories
57(1)
Numerical RCWA Resolution Method
58(1)
Modelling of a Periodic Profile of Infinite Extent
58(1)
Global Wavefront Coupling
58(1)
Field Description Outside the Diffractive Structure Region
59(1)
Resolution of the Wave Equation
59(1)
Matrix Representation of the Wave Equation
60(1)
Approximations of the RCWA Method
60(1)
Discussion on the Coupled Wave Approximations
61(1)
CPU Time Considerations
62(1)
DOE Design and Optimization Techniques
62(56)
Analytical-Type Diffractive Elements
63(1)
Straightforward Design
63(3)
Use of Classical Optical Design (COD) Tools
66(2)
Radially Symmetrical Phase Profiles for Aspherical Phase Profile Description (the Well-Known Sag Equation)
68(1)
General Non-symmetrical Aspherical Phase Profile Described as a Polynomial Expansion (i.e. CodeV™ Output Format)
68(1)
Interferogram-Type DOEs
69(3)
Harmonic or Multiorder DOEs
72(2)
Holographic Optical Elements (HOEs)
74(1)
Numerical-Type Diffractive Elements
75(1)
Characteristics of Numerical-Type DOEs
76(1)
Degrees of Freedom of Design Process
76(1)
DOE-Related Degrees of Freedom
76(1)
Reconstruction Plane-Related Degrees of Freedom
76(1)
Quality Criteria of Reconstruction
77(1)
Diffraction Efficiency ∇d
77(1)
Root Mean Square Error (RMS-E)
78(1)
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
79(1)
Strehl Ratio γ
80(1)
Cost Function Considerations
80(1)
Space-Bandwidth Product (SBWP)
81(2)
Implicit Design Constraint Considerations
83(1)
Direct Design Techniques
83(1)
Talbot Array Illuminators
84(2)
Iterative Optimization Algorithms
86(1)
Input-Output Optimization Algorithms
87(1)
Direct Binary Search Algorithm
87(1)
Simulated Annealing (SA) Algorithms
87(3)
Iterative Discrete On-Axis (IDO) Algorithm
90(1)
IFTA Optimization Algorithms
90(1)
Gerchberg-Saxton Algorithm
90(2)
Ping-Pong Algorithm
92(1)
Yang-Gu Algorithm
93(2)
Algorithms Based on Evolutionary Programming
95(2)
Genetic Algorithms
97(1)
Global Optimization Algorithms
97(1)
Multifunctional DOEs: Description and Classification
98(2)
Non-Linear Quantization
100(1)
Encoding Techniques
101(1)
DOE Data Quantization Process
101(3)
Fringe-Oriented Encoding
104(1)
Cell-Oriented Encoding
104(2)
Pixel-Oriented Encoding
106(1)
Complex Kinoform Encoding Method
106(1)
Real Error Diffusion Encoding Method
107(2)
Complex Error Diffusion Encoding Method
109(2)
Lohman Encoding Method
111(1)
Lee Encoding Method
111(2)
Burch Encoding Method
113(1)
Spatial Carrier Encoding
113(1)
High Spatial Frequency Carrier
113(1)
Grating Dislocation Encoding
114(1)
Encoding Advantages and Limitations
115(3)
DOE Modelling and Simulation Techniques
118(7)
Analytical-Type DOE Modelling and Simulation Techniques
118(1)
Local Grating Approximation
119(1)
Equivalent Lens Model
120(1)
Sweatt Model
121(1)
User-Defined Surfaces (UDS)
121(1)
HOE Simulation Method
122(1)
Numerical-Type DOE Modelling and Simulation Techniques
122(1)
BPM Modelling Techniques
123(1)
TE Polarization Mode
124(1)
TM Polarization Mode
124(1)
References
125(5)
DOE Fabrication and Replication Techniques
130(41)
Introduction
130(1)
Desktop DOE Production Techniques
131(1)
Photoreduction Technique
131(1)
Direct High-Resolution Printing
132(1)
Diamond Machine Tools
132(1)
Dynamical Devices
133(5)
Reconfigurable DOEs
134(1)
Acousto-Optical Modulators
134(1)
Electro-Optical Modulators
134(1)
Photorefractive Materials
135(1)
Liquid Crystal Spatial Light Modulators
135(1)
MEMs-Based Reconfigurable DOEs
136(1)
Switchable DOEs
137(1)
Microlithographic Fabrication Technology
138(12)
Mask Pattern Generators
139(1)
Laser-Beam Writing Machines
139(1)
Electron-Beam Pattern Generators
139(2)
Photolithographic Transfer
141(1)
Mask Aligners
141(1)
Phase Shift Masks
142(1)
Step and Scan: Steppers
143(1)
Pattern Etching
144(1)
Deep Exposure Lithography
144(1)
Deep X-Ray Exposure and Patterning
145(1)
Deep Proton Irradiation
146(1)
Direct Material Ablation Tools
147(1)
FIB Technology
148(1)
Direct Laser Ablation
148(1)
Fast Atom-Beam Masking
149(1)
Microlithographic Fabrication Techniques
150(11)
Optical Interference
150(1)
Fiber Bragg Grating Fabrication
150(2)
Conventional Mask Alignments
152(1)
Grey-Tone Masking
152(5)
Direct Write Methods
157(1)
Direct Binary Write
158(1)
Direct Analog Write
158(2)
Ion Exchange Techniques
160(1)
Ion Exchange Fabrication Methods
160(1)
LIGA Process
161(1)
Replication Techniques
161(8)
Use of Step and Repeat (Stepper)
162(1)
Plastic Embossing Process
162(1)
Moulding Processes
162(1)
Injection Moulding DOE Replication Techniques
162(3)
Sol-Gel Process
165(1)
Holographic Recording Process
165(4)
Summary of DOE Design and Fabrication
169(1)
References
169(2)
CAD/CAM Tools for DOEs
171(44)
Introduction
171(1)
CAD Design Techniques
171(30)
General Design Algorithm for CGHs
171(1)
Choice of the Core Propagator
172(4)
Improvements to the Core Algorithm
176(1)
Improvements of the Quantization Process
176(4)
Improvements in Uniformity
180(2)
Optimum Encoding Methods
182(3)
CAD Simulation Techniques
185(1)
Numerical Propagator Constraints
186(1)
Far-Field Reconstructions
186(1)
Near-Field Reconstructions
186(1)
Straightforward Fresnel Transform (SFFT) Propagator
187(1)
Convolution-Based Fresnel Transform (CBFT) Propagator
188(1)
The Kirchhoff-Based 3D Propagators
189(3)
3DK-Based DOE Design and Optimization
192(2)
Increasing the Dynamic Range of the FFT-Based Reconstructions
194(1)
Imbedding Process
195(1)
Oversampling Process
195(1)
Effects of Combined Processes
195(2)
Example of Numerical Reconstruction Improvements
197(1)
Spatial Multiplexing Process
198(3)
High-Level DOE Operations in CAD/CAM Tools
201(11)
Spatial Multiplexing
201(1)
DOE Data Modulation
202(3)
Complex DOE Data Multiplexing
205(3)
Iterative DOE Data Multiplexing
208(1)
Solutions to Scaling Problem
209(2)
Adapted Constraint Sets for Convergence of Algorithm
211(1)
Associated Tolerancing: Design Rule Checks
212(2)
References
214(1)
DOE Fabrication Tolerancing Analysis
215(60)
Introduction
215(1)
Optimum Microlithographic Fabrication Techniques
215(12)
Basic Requirements
216(1)
Experimental Investigations
216(2)
Direct Binary Electron-Beam Write
218(1)
Experimental Validations
218(2)
Fabrication Error Analysis
220(1)
Direct Analog Electron-Beam Write
221(1)
Experimental Validations
221(3)
Fabrication Error Analysis
224(3)
Fabrication Constraint Analysis and Modelling
227(20)
Electron-Beam Proximity Effects
228(2)
2D-EPE Effects
230(2)
3D EPE Effects
232(4)
Optical Proximity Effects
236(1)
Quantification of the Effects of 2D OPEs on DOE Performance
237(3)
Anisotropic Etching
240(1)
Quantification of the Effects of Anisotropic Ribe Etching on the DOE Performances
241(3)
Additional Ribe Etching Constraints and Errors
244(1)
Other Systematic Fabrication Errors
244(3)
Fabrication Tolerancing Methods
247(3)
Systematic Fabrication Error Compensation Methods
250(23)
Systematic Fabrication Error Compensation Techniques
251(1)
Electron-Beam Proximity Compensation Algorithms
252(1)
Analytical-Type DOE EPE Compensation
253(3)
Numerical-Type DOE EPE Compensation
256(2)
Application to 2D EPE Effects
258(1)
Analytical-Type DOE Compensation
258(1)
Numerical-Type DOE Compensation
258(2)
Application to 3D EPE Effects
260(1)
Analytical-Type DOE Compensation
260(1)
Numerical-Type DOE Compensation
261(4)
Optical Proximity Compensation Algorithms
265(1)
Compensation of Other Fabrication Errors
266(1)
Direct Linear Compensation Methods
267(1)
Electron-Beam Dosage
267(1)
Anisotropic Ion Milling Errors
268(1)
Decreasing DOE Sensitivity to Fabrication Errors
268(1)
Numerical Propagator Core Alteration
268(1)
Multiple IFTA-Based Iterative Compensation
269(1)
Multiple PI Quantization Techniques
270(3)
References
273(2)
DOE Mask Layout Generation
275(32)
Introduction
275(1)
Standard Fabrication File Formats
275(5)
High Level Formats
276(1)
Intermediate-Level Formats
276(1)
Source Languages
276(1)
Low-Level Formats
277(3)
DOE Data Fracture Techniques
280(27)
Analytical-Type DOE Fracture
280(2)
Core Algorithm of the General-Purpose Fracture Process
282(7)
Fracture Error Quantification
289(1)
Fringe Search Algorithm
290(1)
Polygonization of Skeletonized Fringes
291(2)
Numerical-Type DOE Fracture
293(1)
Finding the Optimum Kinoform Cell Shape
293(3)
Data Compression Applied to the Final Fabrication File
296(1)
Data Compression Method No. 1
296(1)
Data Compression Method No. 2
297(1)
Simulation of Effects of DOE Data Fracture
298(2)
Final Formatting of the Fractured Patterns
300(2)
Reticule Layout Placement and Wafer Stepping
302(5)
System-Oriented DOE Designs: Examples
307(60)
Introduction
307(2)
Hybrid Optical Systems
309(11)
Diffractive/Refractive Partitioning Issues
310(2)
Simulation Techniques for Hybrid Systems
312(1)
DOE Phase Unwrapping Process
313(1)
Hybrid Ray Tracing/Fresnel Propagation Method
313(5)
Example
318(2)
Additional Properties of Hybrid Lenses
320(6)
Shallow Blazed Diffractive Grooves
321(2)
Deep Blazed Diffractive Grooves
323(1)
Binary Diffractive Grooves
324(2)
Multiplexed Diffractive Grooves
326(1)
Optoelectronic Systems
326(27)
OE Partitioning Issues
328(2)
Example 1: Optical Clock Distribution for MCM
330(2)
Physical Parameter Optimization
332(2)
Related Constraints
334(2)
OE System Architecture Optimization Procedure
336(2)
Multifunctional DOE Optimization Procedure
338(4)
Example 2: Free-Space Optical Interconnections
342(1)
Computer Interconnection Architecture
342(1)
Physical Detector Placements
343(1)
DOE Array Design Considerations
344(3)
Example 3: OE Packaging Issues---Design Compensations
347(1)
OE Packaging Tolerancing
347(2)
DOE Compensation Techniques
349(1)
Core Propagator Alteration
350(2)
Use of the MP-GPA Algorithm
352(1)
Optomechanical Systems
353(10)
Optomechanical Partitioning Issues
353(1)
Example 1: Diffractive Synthetic Aperture Zoom
354(4)
Example 2: Microfluidic System
358(3)
Example 3: High-Resolution Lidar Signal Analysis Microsystem
361(2)
Summary
363(1)
References
363(4)
Conclusion 367(2)
Index 369

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