Earth : An Introduction to Physical Geology

by Tarbuck, Edward J.; Lutgens, Frederick K; Tasa, Dennis

• ISBN13: 9780131148659
• ISBN10: 0131148656
• Edition: 8th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-01-01
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

To understand timely issues such as natural disasters and environmental challengesand to evaluate solutions to related problemsthe average citizen needs a basic awareness of the scientific principles that influence our planet. This trusted book makes an often-complex subject accessible to readers with a strong focus on readability and illustrations.Offers a meaningful, non-technical survey that is informative and up to date for learning basic principles and concepts. Includes a revised and expanded GEODe Earth CD-ROM. Updates and revises art and illustrations to include dozens of new high-quality, photographs carefully selected to aid understanding and add realism. Provides a wealth of new special-interest boxes, including "Earth as a System," "People and the Environment," and "Understanding Earth."A useful reference for anyone interested in learning more about Earth's geology.

Table of Contents

Preface	xvii
Instructor and Student Resources	xxi
An Introduction to Geology	1	(33)
The Science of Geology	2	(3)
Geology, People, and the Environment	3	(1)
Some Historical Notes About Geology	4	(1)
Geologic Time	5	(3)
Relative Dating and the Geologic Time Scale	6	(1)
The Magnitude of Geologic Time	7	(1)
The Nature of Scientific Inquiry	8	(4)
Hypothesis	8	(2)
Theory	10	(1)
Scientific Methods	10	(1)
Plate Tectonics and Scientific Inquiry	11	(1)
A View of Earth	12	(2)
Hydrosphere	13	(1)
Atmosphere	13	(1)
Biosphere	14	(1)
Solid Earth	14	(1)
Earth As a System	14	(3)
Earth System Science	14	(1)
The Earth System	15	(2)
Early Evolution of Earth	17	(2)
Origin of Planet Earth	17	(2)
Formation of Earth's Layered Structure	19	(1)
Earth's Internal Structure	19	(5)
Layers Defined by Composition	19	(2)
Layers Defined by Physical Properties	21	(1)
How Do We Know What We Know?	21	(3)
The Face of Earth	24	(2)
Major Features of the Continents	24	(1)
Major Features of the Ocean Floor	25	(1)
Rocks and the Rock Cycle	26	(8)
Basic Rock Types	26	(5)
The Rock Cycle: One of Earth's Subsystems	31
Box 1.1 Understanding Earth: Studying Earth from Space	10	(2)
Box 1.2 Understanding Earth: Do Glaciers Move? An Application of the Scientific Method	12	(22)
Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution Unfolds	34	(42)
Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time	37	(6)
Fit of the Continents	38	(1)
Fossil Evidence	39	(2)
Rock Type and Structural Similarities	41	(1)
Paleoclimatic Evidence	42	(1)
The Great Debate	43	(2)
Rejection of the Continental Drift Hypothesis	43	(1)
Continental Drift and the Scientific Method	44	(1)
Continental Drift and Paleomagnetism	45	(3)
Earth's Magnetic Field and Fossil Magnetism	45	(2)
Apparent Polar Wandering	47	(1)
A Scientific Revolution Begins	48	(5)
The Seafloor-Spreading Hypothesis	48	(1)
Geomagnetic Reversals: Evidence for Seafloor Spreading	49	(3)
The Last Piece of the Puzzle	52	(1)
Plate Tectonics: The New Paradigm	53	(4)
Earth's Major Plates	53	(3)
Plate Boundaries	56	(1)
Divergent Boundaries	57	(1)
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading	57	(1)
Continental Rifting	58	(1)
Convergent Boundaries	58	(4)
Oceanic-Continental Convergence	60	(1)
Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence	60	(2)
Continental-Continental Convergence	62	(1)
Transform Fault Boundaries	62	(2)
Testing the Plate Tectonics Model	64	(3)
Evidence from Ocean Drilling	65	(1)
Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes	66	(1)
Measuring Plate Motion	67	(2)
Paleomagnetism and Plate Motions	67	(1)
Measuring Plate Velocities from Space	68	(1)
What Drives Plate Motions?	69	(2)
Forces that Drive Plate Motion	69	(1)
Models of Plate-Mantle Convection	70	(1)
The Importance of the Plate Tectonics Theory	71	(5)
Box 2.1 Understanding Earth: The Breakup of Pangaea	40	(4)
Box 2.2 Understanding Earth: Alfred Wegener (1880-1930): Polar Explorer and Visionary	44	(6)
Box 2.3 Understanding Earth: Priority in the Sciences	50	(23)
Box 2.4 Understanding Earth: Sampling the Ocean Floor	73	(3)
Matter and Minerals	76	(32)
Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks	78	(2)
The Composition of Minerals	80	(7)
Atomic Structure	80	(2)
Bonding	82	(4)
Isotopes and Radioactive Decay	86	(1)
The Structure of Minerals	87	(1)
Physical Properties of Minerals	88	(5)
Primary Diagnostic Properties	89	(3)
Other Properties of Minerals	92	(1)
Mineral Groups	93	(1)
The Silicates	94	(2)
The Silicon--Oxygen Tetrahedron	94	(1)
Other Silicate Structures	94	(1)
Joining Silicate Structures	95	(1)
Common Silicate Minerals	96	(5)
The Light Silicates	98	(2)
The Dark Silicates	100	(1)
Important Nonsilicate Minerals	101	(7)
Box 3.1 People and the Environment: Making Glass from Minerals	81	(3)
Box 3.2 People and the Environment: Asbestos: What Are the Risks?	84	(20)
Box 3.3 Understanding Earth: Gemstones	104	(4)
Igneous Rocks	108	(28)
Magma: The Parent Material of Igneous Rock	110	(2)
The Nature of Magma	110	(1)
From Magma to Crystalline Rock	111	(1)
Igneous Textures	112	(3)
Factors Affecting Crystal Size	112	(1)
Types of Igneous Textures	113	(2)
Igneous Compositions	115	(4)
Granitic versus Basaltic Composition	116	(1)
Other Compositional Groups	117	(1)
Silica Content As an Indicator of Composition	117	(2)
Naming Igneous Rocks	119	(5)
Felsic (Granitic) Igneous Rocks	119	(2)
Intermediate (Andesitic) Igneous Rocks	121	(1)
Mafic (Basaltic) Igneous Rocks	121	(1)
Pyroclastic Rocks	122	(2)
Origin of Magma	124	(4)
Generating Magma from Solid Rock	124	(4)
How Magmas Evolve	128	(4)
Bowen's Reaction Series and the Composition of Igneous Rocks	128	(2)
Assimilation and Magma Mixing	130	(2)
Partial Melting and Magma Formation	132	(4)
Formation of a Basaltic Magma	132	(1)
Formation of Andesitic and Granitic Magmas	132
Box 4.1 Understanding Earth: Pegmatites	116	(2)
Box 4.2 Understanding Earth: Thin Sections and Rock Identification	118	(13)
Box 4.3 Understanding Earth: A Closer Look at Bowen's Reaction Series	131	(5)
Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity	136	(46)
The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions	140	(2)
Factors Affecting Viscosity	140	(1)
Importance of Dissolved Gases	141	(1)
Materials Extruded During an Eruption	142	(5)
Lava Flows	144	(1)
Gases	145	(1)
Pyroclastic Materials	146	(1)
Volcanic Structures and Eruptive Styles	147	(7)
Anatomy of a Volcano	147	(1)
Shield Volcanoes	148	(3)
Cinder Cones	151	(2)
Composite Cones	153	(1)
Living in the Shadow of a Composite Cone	154	(4)
The Lost Continent of Atlantis	154	(1)
Eruption of Vesuvius A.D. 79	155	(1)
Nuee Ardente: A Deadly Pyroclastic Flow	156	(1)
Lahars: Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones	157	(1)
Other Volcanic Landforms	158	(4)
Calderas	158	(1)
Fissure Eruptions and Basalt Plateaus	159	(2)
Lava Domes	161	(1)
Volcanic Pipes and Necks	161	(1)
Intrusive Igneous Activity	162	(6)
Nature of Plutons	163	(1)
Dikes	163	(1)
Sills and Laccoliths	164	(3)
Batholiths	167	(1)
Plate Tectonics and Igneous Activity	168	(7)
Igneous Activity at Convergent Plate Boundaries	172	(1)
Igneous Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries	173	(1)
Intraplate Igneous Activity	174	(1)
Can Volcanoes Change Earth's Climate?	175	(7)
The Basic Premise	176	(1)
Three Modern Examples	177
Box 5.1 Understanding Earth: Anatomy of an Eruption	143	(22)
Box 5.2 People and the Environment: Volcanic Crisis on Montserrat	165	(13)
Box 5.3 Earth As a System: A Possible Link Between Volcanism and Climate Change in the Geologic Past	178	(4)
Weathering and Soil	182	(28)
Earth's External Processes	184	(1)
Weathering	185	(1)
Mechanical Weathering	185	(2)
Frost Wedging	185	(1)
Unloading	186	(1)
Thermal Expansion	186	(1)
Biological Activity	187	(1)
Chemical Weathering	187	(7)
Dissolution	187	(2)
Oxidation	189	(1)
Hydrolysis	190	(3)
Alterations Caused by Chemical Weathering	193	(1)
Rates of Weathering	194	(2)
Rock Characteristics	195	(1)
Climate	196	(1)
Differential Weathering	196	(1)
Soil	196	(2)
An Interface in the Earth System	197	(1)
What Is Soil?	197	(1)
Controls of Soil Formation	198	(2)
Parent Material	198	(1)
Time	198	(1)
Climate	199	(1)
Plants and Animals	199	(1)
Topography	200	(1)
The Soil Profile	200	(4)
Classifying Soils	204	(1)
Soil Erosion	204	(6)
How Soil Is Eroded	204	(1)
Rates of Erosion	204	(3)
Sedimentation and Chemical Pollution	207
Box 6.1 Understanding Earth: The Old Man of the Mountain	188	(4)
Box 6.2 Earth As a System: Acid Precipitation---A Human Impact on the Earth System	192	(13)
Box 6.3 People and the Environment: Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest---The Impact on its Soils	205	(2)
Box 6.4 People and the Environment: Dust Bowl---Soil Erosion in the Great Plains	207	(3)
Sedimentary Rocks	210	(32)
What Is a Sedimentary Rock?	212	(1)
Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock: Diagenesis and Lithification	212	(2)
Types of Sedimentary Rocks	214	(1)
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks	214	(6)
Shale	215	(1)
Sandstone	216	(2)
Conglomerate and Breccia	218	(2)
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks	220	(6)
Limestone	221	(1)
Dolostone	222	(1)
Chert	223	(10)
Evaporites	233
Coal	225	(1)
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks	226	(2)
Sedimentary Environments	228	(7)
Types of Sedimentary Environments	232	(3)
Sedimentary Facies	235	(1)
Sedimentary Structures	235	(7)
Box 7.1 Earth As a System: The Carbon Cycle and Sedimentary Rocks	220	(9)
Box 7.2 Earth As a System: Using Seafloor Sediments to Unravel Past Climates	229	(3)
Box 7.3 Understanding Earth: The Nature and Distribution of Seafloor Sediments	232	(10)
Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks	242	(28)
Metamorphism	244	(2)
Agents of Metamorphism	246	(4)
Heat As a Metamorphic Agent	246	(1)
Pressure and Differential Stress	247	(2)
Chemically Active Fluids	249	(1)
The Importance of Parent Rock	249	(1)
Metamorphic Textures	250	(3)
Foliation	250	(1)
Foliated Textures	251	(2)
Other Metamorphic Textures	253	(1)
Common Metamorphic Rocks	253	(3)
Foliated Rocks	254	(1)
Nonfoliated Rocks	255	(1)
Metamorphic Environments	256	(6)
Contact or Thermal Metamorphism	257	(1)
Hydrothermal Metamorphism	258	(2)
Regional Metamorphism	260	(1)
Other Metamorphic Environments	260	(2)
Metamorphic Zones	262	(2)
Textural Variations	262	(1)
Index Minerals and Metamorphic Grade	262	(2)
Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics	264	(6)
Ancient Metamorphic Environments	265	(1)
Box 8.1 Understanding Earth: Impact Metamorphism and Tektites	266	(4)
Geologic Time	270	(30)
Geology Needs a Time Scale	272	(1)
Relative Dating---Key Principles	273	(3)
Law of Superposition	273	(1)
Principle of Original Horizontality	273	(1)
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships	274	(1)
Inclusions	275	(1)
Unconformities	275	(1)
Using Relative Dating Principles	276	(1)
Correlation of Rock Layers	276	(1)
Fossils: Evidence of Past Life	277	(7)
Types of Fossils	278	(1)
Conditions Favoring Preservation	279	(2)
Fossils and Correlation	281	(3)
Dating with Radioactivity	284	(9)
Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure	285	(1)
Radioactivity	285	(2)
Half-Life	287	(1)
Radiometric Dating	287	(3)
Dating with Carbon-14	290	(1)
Importance of Radiometric Dating	291	(2)
The Geologic Time Scale	293	(1)
Structure of the Time Scale	293	(1)
Precambrian Time	293	(1)
Difficulties in Dating the Geologic Time Scale	294	(6)
Box 9.1 Understanding Earth: Applying Relative Dating Principles to the Lunar Surface	283	(1)
Box 9.2 Understanding Earth: The Burgess Shale	284	(4)
Box 9.3 People and the Environment: Radon	288	(2)
Box 9.4 Understanding Earth: Using Tree Rings to Date and Study the Recent Past	290	(4)
Box 9.5 Earth As a System: Demise of the Dinosaurs	294	(6)
Crustal Deformation	300	(26)
Structural Geology: A Study of Earth's Architecture	302	(1)
Deformation	302	(5)
Force and Stress	302	(1)
Types of Stress	302	(2)
Strain	304	(1)
How Rocks Deform	305	(2)
Mapping Geologic Structures	307	(1)
Strike and Dip	308	(1)
Folds	308	(4)
Types of Folds	308	(3)
Domes and Basins	311	(1)
Faults	312	(9)
Dip-Slip Faults	314	(1)
Strike-Slip Faults	314	(7)
Joints	321	(5)
Box 10.1 Understanding Earth: Naming Local Rock Units	309	(13)
Box 10.2 People and the Environment: The San Andreas Fault System	322	(4)
Earthquakes	326	(34)
What Is an Earthquake?	329	(2)
Earthquakes and Faults	330	(1)
Elastic Rebound	331	(1)
Foreshocks and Aftershocks	331	(1)
Earthquake Rupture and Propagation	331	(2)
San Andreas Fault: An Active Earthquake Zone	333	(1)
Seismology	333	(4)
Locating the Source of an Earthquake	337	(3)
Earthquake Belts	338	(1)
Earthquake Depths	338	(2)
Measuring the Size of Earthquakes	340	(4)
Intensity Scales	340	(1)
Magnitude Scales	341	(3)
Earthquake Destruction	344	(6)
Destruction from Seismic Vibrations	344	(1)
Tsunami	345	(3)
Landslides and Ground Subsidence	348	(1)
Fire	349	(1)
Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?	350	(5)
Short-Range Predictions	351	(1)
Long-Range Forecasts	352	(3)
Earthquakes: Evidence for Plate Tectonics	355	(5)
Box 11.1 People and the Environment: Earthquakes East of the Rockies	339	(7)
Box 11.2 Understanding Earth: Wave Amplification and Seismic Risks	346	(3)
Box 11.3 People and the Environment: Tsunami Warning System	349	(5)
Box 11.4 Understanding Earth: A Major Earthquake in Turkey	354	(6)
Earth's Interior	360	(20)
Probing Earth's Interior	362	(1)
The Nature of Seismic Waves	362	(1)
Seismic Waves and Earth's Structure	363	(3)
Layers Defined by Composition	364	(1)
Layers Defined by Physical Properties	364	(2)
Discovering Earth's Major Boundaries	366	(2)
The Moho	366	(2)
The Core--Mantle Boundary	368	(1)
Discovery of the Inner Core	368	(1)
The Crust	368	(2)
The Mantle	370	(1)
The Core	371	(2)
Density and Composition	371	(1)
Origin	372	(1)
Earth's Magnetic Field	373	(1)
Earth's Internal Heat Engine	373	(7)
Heat Flow in the Crust	373	(1)
Mantle Convection	373
Box 12.1 Understanding Earth: Inge Lehmann---A Pioneering Geophysicist	370	(4)
Box 12.2 Understanding Earth: Why Does Earth Have a Magnetic Field?	374	(2)
Box 12.3 Understanding Earth: Seismic Tomography of the Mantle	376	(4)
Divergent Boundaries: Origin and Evolution of the Ocean Floor	380	(34)
An Emerging Picture of the Ocean Floor	382	(3)
Mapping the Seafloor	382	(2)
Viewing the Ocean Floor from Space	384	(1)
Provinces of the Ocean Floor	385	(1)
Continental Margins	385	(4)
Passive Continental Margins	385	(3)
Active Continental Margins	388	(1)
Features of the Deep-Ocean Basins	389	(2)
Deep-Ocean Trenches	389	(1)
Abyssal Plains	390	(1)
Seamounts, Guyots, and Oceanic Plateaus	390	(1)
Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge	391	(2)
Origin of Oceanic Lithosphere	393	(3)
Seafloor Spreading	393	(3)
Why Are Oceanic Ridges Elevated?	396	(1)
Spreading Rates and Ridge Topography	396	(1)
The Structure of Oceanic Crust	396	(3)
Formation of Oceanic Crust	397	(2)
Interactions Between Seawater and Oceanic Crust	399	(1)
Continental Rifting: The Birth of a New Ocean Basin	399	(5)
Evolution of an Ocean Basin	399	(4)
Mechanisms for Continental Rifting	403	(1)
Destruction of Oceanic Lithosphere	404	(3)
Why Oceanic Lithosphere Subducts	405	(1)
Subducting Plates: The Demise of an Ocean Basin	406	(1)
Opening and Closing Ocean Basins: The Supercontinent Cycle	407	(7)
Before Pangaea	407	(2)
Plate Tectonics into the Future	409
Box 13.1 Understanding Earth: Susan DeBari---A Career in Geology	387	(5)
Box 13.2 Understanding Earth: Explaining Coral Atolls---Darwin's Hypothesis	392	(8)
Box 13.3 Earth As a System: Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Biocommunities---Earth's First Life?	400	(14)
Convergent Boundaries: Mountain Building and the Evolution of the Continents	414	(30)
Mountain Building	417	(1)
Convergence and Subducting Plates	418	(4)
Major Features of Subduction Zones	418	(4)
Dynamics at Subduction Zones	422	(1)
Subduction and Mountain Building	422	(3)
Island Arcs	422	(1)
Mountain Building Along Andean-Type Margins	422	(3)
Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges	425	(1)
Continental Collisions	425	(6)
The Himalayas	427	(1)
The Appalachians	428	(3)
Terranes and Mountain Building	431	(4)
The Nature of Terranes	431	(1)
Accretion and Orogenesis	431	(4)
Fault-Block Mountains	435	(1)
Basin and Range Province	436	(1)
Vertical Movements of the Crust	436	(3)
Isostacy	437	(2)
Mantle Convection: A Cause of Vertical Crustal Movement	439	(1)
The Origin and Evolution of the Continents	439	(5)
Earth's First Continents	439	(1)
How Continents Grow	440
Box 14.1 Understanding Earth: Earthquakes in the Pacific Northwest	421	(11)
Box 14.2 Understanding Earth: The Southern Rockies	432	(6)
Box 14.3 Understanding Earth: Do Mountains Have Roots?	438	(6)
Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity	444	(22)
A Landslide Disaster in Peru	446	(1)
Mass Wasting and Landform Development	447	(1)
The Role of Mass Wasting	447	(1)
Slopes Change Through Time	447	(1)
Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting	448	(3)
The Role of Water	448	(1)
Oversteepened Slopes	448	(1)
Removal of Vegetation	449	(1)
Earthquakes as Triggers	450	(1)
Landslides Without Triggers?	451	(1)
Classification of Mass-Wasting Processes	451	(3)
Type of Material	451	(1)
Type of Motion	451	(2)
Rate of Movement	453	(1)
Slump	454	(1)
Rockslide	454	(3)
Debris Flow	457	(2)
Debris Flows in Semi-arid Regions	457	(2)
Lahars	459	(1)
Earthflow	459	(2)
Slow Movements	461	(3)
Creep	461	(1)
Solifluction	462	(2)
Submarine Landslides	464	(2)
Box 15.1 People and the Environment: The Vaiont Dam Disaster	449	(6)
Box 15.2 People and the Environment: Real-Time Monitoring of Active Landslides	455	(5)
Box 15.3 People and the Environment: Debris Flows on Alluvial Fans: A Case Study from Venezuela	460	(2)
Box 15.4 Understanding Earth: The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape	462	(4)
Running Water	466	(36)
Earth As a System: The Hydrologic Cycle	468	(2)
Running Water	470	(1)
Streamflow	471	(2)
Gradient and Channel Characteristics	471	(1)
Discharge	472	(1)
Changes from Upstream to Downstream	473	(1)
Base Level and Graded Streams	474	(1)
Stream Erosion	475	(1)
Transport of Sediment by Streams	476	(3)
Dissolved Load	477	(1)
Suspended Load	478	(1)
Bed Load	478	(1)
Capacity and Competence	478	(1)
Deposition of Sediment by Streams	479	(5)
Channel Deposits	479	(1)
Floodplain Deposits	480	(1)
Alluvial Fans and Deltas	481	(3)
Stream Valleys	484	(4)
Narrow Valleys	485	(1)
Wide Valleys	486	(2)
Incised Meanders and Stream Terraces	488	(1)
Drainage Networks	489	(2)
Drainage Patterns	489	(1)
Headward Erosion and Stream Piracy	489	(1)
Formation of a Water Gap	490	(1)
Floods and Flood Control	491	(11)
Causes and Types of Floods	492	(5)
Flood Control	497
Box 16.1 People and the Environment: Coastal Wetlands Are Vanishing on the Mississippi Delta	484	(12)
Box 16.2 People and the Environment: Flash Floods	496	(6)
Groundwater	502	(28)
Importance of Underground Water	504	(1)
Distribution of Underground Water	504	(1)
The Water Table	505	(2)
Variations in the Water Table	506	(1)
Interaction Between Groundwater and Streams	507	(1)
Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement of Groundwater	507	(3)
Porosity	509	(1)
Permeability, Aquitards, and Aquifers	509	(1)
Movement of Groundwater	510	(1)
Springs	511	(1)
Hot Springs and Geysers	512	(2)
Wells	514	(1)
Artesian Wells	515	(2)
Problems Associated with Groundwater Withdrawal	517	(2)
Treating Groundwater As a Nonrenewable Resource	517	(1)
Subsidence	517	(1)
Saltwater Contamination	518	(1)
Groundwater Contamination	519	(2)
The Geologic Work of Groundwater	521	(9)
Caverns	523	(1)
Karst Topography	524
Box 17.1 Earth As a System: Drought Impacts the Hydrologic System	508	(12)
Box 17.2 People and the Environment: The Ogallala Aquifer---How Long Will the Water Last?	520	(2)
Box 17.3 People and the Environment: Land Subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley	522	(8)
Glaciers and Glaciation	530	(36)
Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles	532	(1)
Types of Glaciers	533	(3)
Valley (Alpine) Glaciers	533	(1)
Ice Sheets	533	(1)
Other Types of Glaciers	534	(1)
What If the Ice Melted?	535	(1)
Formation of Glacial Ice	536	(1)
Movement of a Glacier	536	(5)
Rates of Glacial Movement	539	(1)
Budget of a Glacier	540	(1)
Glacial Erosion	541	(1)
Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion	542	(5)
Glaciated Valleys	543	(1)
Aretes and Horns	543	(4)
Roches Moutonnees	547	(1)
Glacial Deposits	547	(1)
Landforms Made of Till	548	(6)
Lateral and Medial Morraines	548	(1)
End and Ground Morraines	549	(2)
Drumlins	551	(3)
Landforms Made of Stratified Drift	554	(1)
Outwash Plains and Valley Trains	554	(1)
Ice Contact Deposits	555	(1)
Glacial Theory and the Ice Age	555	(1)
Some Indirect Effects of Ice-Age Glaciers	556	(2)
Causes of Glaciation	558	(8)
Plate Tectonics	558	(3)
Variations in Earth's Orbit	561
Box 18.1 Understanding Earth: The Collapse of Antarctic Ice Shelves	535	(24)
Box 18.2 Understanding Earth: Rivers Before and After the Ice Age	559	(1)
Box 18.3 Understanding Earth: Glacial Ice---A Storehouse of Climate Data	560	(6)
Deserts and Winds	566	(24)
Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands	569	(3)
Low-Latitude Deserts	569	(2)
Middle-Latitude Deserts	571	(1)
Geologic Processes in Arid Climates	572	(3)
Weathering	572	(2)
The Role of Water	574	(1)
Basin and Range: The Evolution of a Desert Landscape	575	(3)
Transportation of Sediment by Wind	578	(1)
Bed Load	578	(1)
Suspended Load	578	(1)
Wind Erosion	579	(4)
Deflation, Blowouts, and Desert Pavement	580	(1)
Ventifacts and Yardangs	581	(2)
Wind Deposits	583	(7)
Sand Deposits	583	(1)
Types of Sand Dunes	584	(2)
Loess (Silt) Deposits	586
Box 19.1 Understanding Earth: What Is Meant by ``Dry''?	569	(4)
Box 19.2 People and the Environment: The Disappearing Aral Sea	573	(4)
Box 19.3 Understanding Earth: Australia's Mount Uluru	577	(5)
Box 19.4 People and the Environment: Deserts Are Expanding	582	(8)
Shorelines	590	(32)
The Shoreline: A Dynamic Interface	592	(1)
The Coastal Zone	592	(2)
Waves	594	(2)
Wave Characteristics	594	(1)
Circular Orbital Motion	595	(1)
Waves in the Surf Zone	595	(1)
Wave Erosion	596	(1)
Sand Movement on the Beach	597	(5)
Movement Perpendicular to the Shoreline	597	(3)
Wave Refraction	600	(1)
Beach Drift and Longshore Currents	600	(2)
Shoreline Features	602	(2)
Erosional Features	602	(1)
Depositional Features	603	(1)
The Evolving Shore	604	(1)
Stabilizing the Shore	604	(9)
Hard Stabilization	605	(4)
Alternatives to Hard Stabilization	609	(2)
Erosion Problems Along U.S. Coasts	611	(2)
Coastal Classification	613	(1)
Emergent Coasts	614	(1)
Submergent Coasts	614	(1)
Tides	614	(8)
Causes of Tides	615	(1)
Monthly Tidal Cycle	616	(1)
Tidal Patterns	617	(1)
Tidal Currents	617	(1)
Tides and Earth's Rotation	618
Box 20.1 People and the Environment: Hurricanes---The Ultimate Coastal Hazard	598	(14)
Box 20.2 People and the Environment: The Move of the Century---Relocating the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse	612	(1)
Box 20.3 People and the Environment: Coastal Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise	613	(9)
Energy and Mineral Resources	622	(35)
Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources	624	(1)
Energy Resources	625	(1)
Coal	625	(2)
Oil and Natural Gas	627	(2)
Petroleum Formation	627	(1)
Oil Traps	628	(1)
Some Environmental Effects of Burning Fossil Fuels	629	(6)
Urban Air Pollution	629	(2)
Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming	631	(4)
Oil Sands and Oil Shale---Petroleum for the Future?	635	(1)
Oil Sands	635	(1)
Oil Shale	636	(1)
Alternate Energy Sources	636	(8)
Nuclear Energy	637	(1)
Solar Energy	638	(2)
Wind Energy	640	(1)
Hydroelectric Power	640	(1)
Geothermal Energy	641	(2)
Tidal Power	643	(1)
Mineral Resources	644	(1)
Mineral Resources and Igneous Processes	644	(4)
Magmatic Segregation	645	(1)
Diamonds	645	(1)
Hydrothermal Solutions	646	(2)
Mineral Resources and Metamorphic Processes	648	(1)
Weathering and Ore Deposits	649	(1)
Bauxite	650	(1)
Other Deposits	650	(1)
Placer Deposits	650	(1)
Nonmetallic Mineral Resources	651	(6)
Building Materials	652	(1)
Industrial Minerals	652
Box 21.1 Understanding Earth: Gas Hydrates---A Fuel from Ocean-Floor Sediments	628	(6)
Box 21.2 People and the Environment: Aerosols from the ``Human Volcano''	634	(12)
Box 21.3 Understanding Earth: Bingham Canyon, Utah---The Largest Open-Pit Mine	646	(11)
Planetary Geology	657	(28)
The Planets: An Overview	658	(3)
The Interiors of the Planets	659	(1)
The Atmospheres of the Planets	659	(2)
Earth's Moon	661	(5)
The Lunar Surface	665	(1)
Lunar History	665	(1)
The Planets: A Brief Tour	666	(11)
Mercury: The Innermost Planet	666	(1)
Venus: The Veiled Planet	666	(1)
Mars: The Red Planet	667	(4)
Jupiter: Lord of the Heavens	671	(2)
Saturn: The Elegant Planet	673	(2)
Uranus and Neptune: the Twins	675	(2)
Pluto: Planet X	677	(1)
Minor Members of the Solar System	677	(8)
Asteroids: Microplanets	677	(1)
Comets	678	(3)
Meteoroids	681
Box 22.1 Understanding Earth: Pathfinder---The First Geologist on Mars	668	(10)
Box 22.2 Understanding Earth: Is Pluto Really a Planet?	678	(1)
Box 22.3 Earth As a System: Is Earth on a Collision Course?	679	(6)
Appendix A Metric and English Systems Compared	685	(1)
Appendix B Landforms of the Conterminous United States	686	(2)
Glossary	688	(17)
Index	705