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The Bases for Assessment in the Classroom | |
Classroom Decision Making and Using Assessment | p. 1 |
About This Chapter | p. 2 |
Example of Assessments Used for an Educational Decision | p. 2 |
Teachers' Classroom Decisions | p. 3 |
Distinctions Among Assessments, Tests, Measurements, and Evaluations | p. 4 |
High-Stakes Assessment and Accountability | p. 8 |
Assessment and Educational Decisions About Students | p. 11 |
Acquiring the Competence to Assess Students | p. 14 |
Describing the Goals and Learning Targets of Instruction | p. 17 |
About This Chapter | p. 18 |
Importance of Specifying Objectives | p. 18 |
Educational Goals, State Standards, and Learning Targets | p. 19 |
Taxonomies of Learning Targets | p. 25 |
Cognitive Domain Taxonomies | p. 25 |
Choosing a Taxonomy | p. 31 |
Sources for Locating Learning Targets | p. 31 |
Evaluating the Learning Targets of a Course or Unit | p. 32 |
How to Write Specific Learning Targets | p. 32 |
Making Sure Assessment Tasks Are Aligned With Learning Targets | p. 33 |
Validity of Assessment Results | p. 37 |
About This Chapter | p. 38 |
General Nature of Validity | p. 38 |
Four Principles for Validation | p. 38 |
Validity of Teacher-Crafted Classroom Assessment Results | p. 40 |
Validity of Extraclassroom Assessments | p. 45 |
Categories of Validity Evidence | p. 48 |
Combining Evidence for Validity Judgments: An Argument-Based Approach | p. 60 |
Validity Issues When Accommodating Students With Disabilities | p. 61 |
Reliability of Assessment Results | p. 66 |
About This Chapter | p. 67 |
General Nature of Reliability | p. 67 |
Causes of Measurement Error or Inconsistency | p. 68 |
Types of Reliability Coefficients | p. 69 |
Obtained Scores, True Scores, and Error Scores | p. 75 |
Standard Error of Measurement | p. 76 |
Additional Factors Affecting Reliability and SEM | p. 78 |
Reliability of Mastery and Pass-Fail Decisions | p. 79 |
How to Improve Reliability | p. 81 |
Professional Responsibilities, Ethical Behavior, and Legal Requirements in Educational Assessments | p. 84 |
About This Chapter | p. 85 |
A Teacher's Professional Responsibilities in Assessment | p. 85 |
Students' Rights as Test Takers | p. 93 |
Students' Responsibilities | p. 93 |
Secrecy, Access, Privacy, Confidentiality, and the Teacher | p. 95 |
Legally Defensible Assessment Accommodation Policies | p. 96 |
Testing Challenged in Court | p. 98 |
Bias in Educational Assessment | p. 99 |
Possible Future Directions of Test Fairness | p. 102 |
Crafting and Using Classroom Assessments | |
Planning for Integrating Assessment and Instruction | p. 106 |
About This Chapter | p. 107 |
How Making Your Own Assessments Improves Your Teaching | p. 107 |
Are You Assessing for Formative or Summative Purposes? | p. 107 |
Assessment Planning for a Marking Period | p. 109 |
Assessment Planning for One Unit of Instruction | p. 110 |
Pretesting to Plan Your Teaching | p. 113 |
Crafting a Plan for One Summative Assessment | p. 114 |
Blueprints for Student-Centered Assessment | p. 116 |
Criteria for Improving the Validity of Assessment Plans | p. 116 |
What Range of Assessment Options Is Available? | p. 120 |
Validity of Different Classroom Assessment Options | p. 127 |
Completion, Short-Answer, and True-False Items | p. 132 |
About This Chapter | p. 133 |
Three Fundamental Principles for Crafting Assessments | p. 133 |
Short-Answer Items | p. 133 |
True-False Items | p. 138 |
Usefulness of True-False Items | p. 139 |
Multiple-Choice and Matching Exercises | p. 147 |
About This Chapter | p. 148 |
Multiple-Choice Item Format | p. 148 |
Considerations Before Crafting Items | p. 149 |
Advantages and Criticisms of Multiple-Choice Items | p. 151 |
When Not to Use Multiple-Choice Items | p. 152 |
Crafting Basic Multiple-Choice Items | p. 153 |
A Checklist for Evaluating Multiple-Choice Items | p. 165 |
Crafting Alternative Varieties of Multiple-Choice Items | p. 166 |
Greater-Less-Same Items | p. 167 |
Best-Answer Items | p. 168 |
Experiment-Interpretation Items | p. 170 |
Statement-and-Comment Items | p. 173 |
Matching Exercise Format | p. 174 |
Advantages and Criticisms of Matching Exercises | p. 175 |
Crafting Basic Matching Exercises | p. 176 |
Crafting Alternative Varieties of Matching Exercises | p. 178 |
Masterlist (Keylist) Items | p. 178 |
Tabular (Matrix) Items | p. 181 |
Essay Assessment Tasks | p. 188 |
About This Chapter | p. 189 |
Formats for Essay Items | p. 189 |
Usefulness of Essay Assessments | p. 191 |
Constructing Essays Assessing Subject-Matter Learning | p. 193 |
Optional Questions | p. 197 |
Constructing Prompts for Assessing Writing Achievement | p. 197 |
Scoring Essay Assessments | p. 201 |
Higher-Order Thinking, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking | p. 207 |
About This Chapter | p. 208 |
Assessing Higher-Order Thinking | p. 208 |
Context-Dependent Item Sets | p. 208 |
Concepts and Concept Learning | p. 209 |
Assessing Concrete Concept Learning | p. 210 |
Assessing Concept Understanding at a Deeper Level | p. 211 |
Assessing Defined Concept Learning | p. 212 |
Assessing Whether Students' Thinking Uses Rules | p. 213 |
Assessing Comprehension of Rules and Principles | p. 214 |
Problem Solving | p. 215 |
Assessing Problem-Solving Skills | p. 217 |
Other Promising Approaches for Assessing Problem Solving | p. 221 |
Critical Thinking | p. 221 |
Assessing Dispositions Toward Critical Thinking | p. 222 |
Assessing Critical-Thinking Abilities | p. 222 |
Other Specific Higher-Order Skills and Abilities | p. 234 |
Enhanced Multiple-Choice Items | p. 238 |
Performance, Portfolio, and Authentic Assessments: An Overview | p. 243 |
About This Chapter | p. 244 |
What Is Performance Assessment? | p. 244 |
Types of Performance Assessments | p. 245 |
Authentic Assessments | p. 253 |
Advantages and Criticisms of Performance Assessments | p. 254 |
How Using Performance Assessment Can Improve Your Teaching | p. 256 |
Multiple Intelligences Perspective on Performance Assessments | p. 256 |
How to Craft Performance Tasks, Projects, Portfolios, Rating Scales, and Scoring Rubrics | p. 261 |
About This Chapter | p. 262 |
Stages in Crafting Performance Tasks and Rubrics | p. 262 |
Being Clear About the Performance to Assess | p. 262 |
Crafting Performance Tasks | p. 264 |
Crafting Rubrics, Checklists, and Rating Scales | p. 269 |
Types of Scoring Rubrics | p. 269 |
Crafting Scoring Rubrics: How to Do It | p. 273 |
Crafting Checklists | p. 276 |
Crafting Rating Scales | p. 277 |
Evaluating Scoring Rubrics and Rating Scales | p. 284 |
Crafting Projects | p. 285 |
Crafting Portfolios | p. 287 |
Electronic Portfolios | p. 292 |
Formative Evaluation Using Informal Diagnostic Assessments | p. 295 |
About This Chapter | p. 296 |
Diagnostic Assessment | p. 296 |
Integrating Teaching, Diagnosis, and Assessment | p. 297 |
Profiling Content Strengths and Weaknesses | p. 298 |
Identifying Prerequisite Deficits | p. 299 |
Identifying Objectives Not Mastered | p. 301 |
Identifying Students' Errors | p. 303 |
Identifying Student Knowledge Structures | p. 304 |
Identifying Competencies for Solving Word Problems | p. 306 |
Interviewing Students | p. 308 |
Preparing Your Students to Be Assessed and Using Students' Results to Improve Your Assessments | p. 311 |
About This Chapter | p. 312 |
Getting Students Ready | p. 312 |
Preparing Students for the Assessment | p. 312 |
Testwiseness | p. 314 |
Advice About Changing Answers | p. 315 |
Test Anxiety | p. 316 |
Putting the Assessment Together | p. 317 |
Assessment Format and Appearance | p. 317 |
Preparations for Scoring the Assessment | p. 319 |
Correction for Guessing | p. 319 |
Using Students' Responses to Improve Assessments | p. 320 |
Item Analysis for Classroom Assessments | p. 320 |
Item Difficulty Index | p. 326 |
Item Discrimination Index | p. 327 |
Improving Multiple-Choice Item Quality | p. 328 |
Selecting Test Items | p. 330 |
Using Computers for Test Assembly and Item Analyses | p. 331 |
Evaluating and Grading Student Progress | p. 335 |
About This Chapter | p. 336 |
The Meanings and Purposes of Grades | p. 336 |
What Are Your Attitudes Toward Marks and Grades? | p. 336 |
Continuous Assessment and Grading | p. 336 |
How People Perceive and Use Grades | p. 338 |
Criticisms of Grades and Marks | p. 340 |
Report Cards and Other Official Reports of Student Progress | p. 341 |
Student Progress Reporting Methods | p. 341 |
Crafting a Multiple Reporting System | p. 346 |
Choosing a Grading Model | p. 348 |
Overview of Section III | p. 348 |
Basic Concepts of Grading Frameworks for Classroom Evaluation | p. 348 |
Choosing Your Grading Model | p. 352 |
Sensible Grading Practices | p. 353 |
Types of Performance to Assess | p. 354 |
Consistent Grading Throughout the Marking Period | p. 355 |
Components of a Grade | p. 356 |
Grade Boundaries | p. 357 |
Failure Grades | p. 357 |
Techniques for Setting Grade Boundaries and Combining Scores | p. 359 |
Assigning Norm-Referenced Letter Grades | p. 359 |
Assigning Criterion-Referenced Letter Grades | p. 363 |
Gradebook Computer Programs | p. 367 |
Interpreting and Using Standardized Tests | |
Standardized Achievement Tests | p. 371 |
About This Chapter | p. 372 |
Types of Tests | p. 372 |
Standardized Survey Batteries | p. 372 |
State-Mandated Tests and Customized Tests | p. 379 |
Nonstandardized Achievement Tests | p. 380 |
Appropriate Uses of Standardized Test Results | p. 381 |
Inappropriate Uses of Standardized Test Results | p. 382 |
Multilevel Survey Batteries | p. 384 |
Choosing Standardized Tests | p. 384 |
Complementing Your State Assessment | p. 385 |
How to Administer Standardized Tests | p. 386 |
Ethical and Unethical Student Practice for Standardized Tests | p. 387 |
Interpreting Norm-Referenced Scores | p. 391 |
About This Chapter | p. 392 |
Three Referencing Frameworks | p. 392 |
Using Norms | p. 394 |
Types of Norm Groups | p. 394 |
Overview of Norm-Referenced Scores | p. 397 |
Percentile Ranks | p. 397 |
Linear Standard Scores | p. 399 |
Normal Distributions | p. 401 |
Normalized Standard Scores | p. 404 |
Developmental and Educational Growth Scales | p. 407 |
Extended Normalized Standard Score Scales | p. 407 |
Grade-Equivalent Scores | p. 408 |
Comparison of Various Norm-Referenced Scores | p. 415 |
General Guidelines for Score Interpretation | p. 416 |
Interpreting Scores to Parents | p. 417 |
Finding and Evaluating Published Assessments | p. 420 |
About This Chapter | p. 421 |
Locating a Published Test | p. 421 |
Locating Evaluations of Published Tests | p. 424 |
Locating Computerized Testing Materials | p. 426 |
Locating Unpublished Test Materials | p. 426 |
Restrictions on Purchasing and Using Tests | p. 427 |
Evaluating and Selecting a Test | p. 428 |
How a Standardized Test Is Developed | p. 431 |
Scholastic Aptitude, Career Interests, Attitudes, and Personality Tests | p. 434 |
About This Chapter | p. 435 |
Aptitudes for Learning | p. 435 |
Group Tests of Scholastic Aptitudes | p. 437 |
Group Tests of Specific Aptitudes | p. 441 |
Individually Administered Tests of General Scholastic Aptitudes | p. 444 |
Assessing Adaptive Behavior | p. 447 |
Assessing Vocational and Career Interests | p. 448 |
Assessing Attitudes | p. 451 |
Assessing Personality Dimensions | p. 451 |
Appendixes | |
Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students | p. 455 |
Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education (Revised) | p. 458 |
Code of Professional Responsibilities in Educational Measurement | p. 461 |
Summaries of Taxonomies of Educational Objectives: Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor Domains | p. 465 |
Categories of Learning Targets Derived from the Dimensions of Learning Model | p. 472 |
Assessment of Metacognition | p. 474 |
Examples of Alternative Blueprints for a Summative Unit Assessment | p. 476 |
Scoring Guide for Oregon's Writing Assessment | p. 479 |
Basic Statistical Concepts | p. 486 |
Computational Procedures for Various Reliability Coefficients | p. 498 |
A Limited List of Published Tests | p. 503 |
List of Test Publishers and Their Websites | p. 505 |
Glossary | p. 507 |
References | p. 525 |
Name Index | p. 537 |
Subject Index | p. 540 |
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