Educational Psychology, Active Learning Edition

by Woolfolk, Anita E.

• ISBN13: 9780205435296
• ISBN10: 0205435297
• Edition: 9th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2008-01-01
• Publisher: Allyn & Bacon

Table of Contents

Preface	xxi
Teachers, Teaching, and Educational Psychology	1	(17)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	1	(1)
Teachers, Teaching, and Educational Psychology	1	(1)
Overview	2	(1)
Teacher-Student Relationships	2	(1)
Teacher Preparation and Quality	2	(2)
Inside Four Classrooms	4	(1)
A Bilingual 1st Grade	4	(1)
A Suburban 5th Grade	4	(1)
Two Advanced Math Classes	5	(1)
Expert Knowledge	5	(1)
Beginning Teachers	6	(2)
The Role of Educational Psychology: Is It Just Common Sense?	8	(2)
Taking Turns	9	(1)
Helping Students	9	(1)
Skipping Grades	9	(1)
Obvious Answer?	10	(1)
Using Research to Understand and Improve Teaching	10	(4)
Descriptive Studies	10	(1)
Correlational Studies	11	(1)
Experimental Studies	11	(1)
Single-Subject Experimental Designs	12	(1)
Microgenetic Studies	12	(1)
The Role of Time in Research	13	(1)
Theories for Teaching	13	(1)
Teachers as Researchers	14	(1)
Summary	14	(1)
Key Terms	15	(1)
Check Yourself	16	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	17
Point/Counterpoint: What Is Good Teaching?	7	(11)
Cognitive Development and Language	18	(42)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	19	(1)
Development: Some General Principles	20	(1)
Overview	20	(1)
The Brain and Cognitive Development	21	(3)
The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex	21	(1)
Specialization and Integration	22	(1)
The Developing Brain: Neurons	22	(2)
Implications for Teachers	24	(1)
The Development of Language	24	(2)
Diversity in Language: Dual Language Development	26	(1)
Language Development in the School Years	26	(3)
Pronunciation	26	(1)
Syntax	27	(1)
Vocabulary and Meaning	27	(1)
Pragmatics	27	(1)
Metalinguistic Awareness	27	(1)
Partnerships with Families	27	(2)
Summary	29	(1)
Key Terms	29	(1)
Check Yourself	30	(1)
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development	31	(1)
Overview	31	(1)
Influences on Development	31	(1)
Basic Tendencies in Thinking	32	(1)
Organization	32	(1)
Adaptation	32	(1)
Equilibration	33	(1)
Four Stages of Cognitive Development	33	(8)
Infancy: The Sensorimotor Stage	33	(1)
Early Childhood to the Elementary Years: The Preoperational Stage	34	(2)
Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: The Concrete-Operational Stage	36	(2)
Junior and Senior High: Formal Operations	38	(2)
Do We All Reach the Fourth Stage?	40	(1)
Summary	41	(1)
Key Terms	41	(1)
Check Yourself	42	(1)
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Perspective	43	(1)
Overview	43	(1)
The Social Sources of Individual Thinking	44	(1)
Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development	45	(1)
The Role of Language and Private Speech	45	(3)
Language and Cultural Diversity	46	(1)
Vygotsky's and Piaget's Views Compared	46	(1)
Self-Talk and Learning	47	(1)
The Role of Learning and Development	48	(1)
Vygotsky's and Piaget's Views Compared	48	(1)
The Role of Adults and Peers	48	(1)
Summary	49	(1)
Key Terms	49	(1)
Check Yourself	50	(1)
Implications of Piaget and Vygotsky for Teachers	51	(1)
Overview	51	(1)
Understanding and Building on Students' Thinking	51	(1)
Activity and Constructing Knowledge	52	(1)
The Value of Play	52	(1)
Some Limitations of Piaget's Theory	53	(2)
The Trouble with Stages	53	(1)
Underestimating Children's Abilities	53	(1)
Cognitive Development and Information Processing	54	(1)
Cognitive Development and Culture	54	(1)
Assisted Learning	55	(1)
The Zone of Proximal Development	55	(2)
Private Speech and the Zone	56	(1)
Teaching	56	(1)
Summary	57	(1)
Key Terms	57	(1)
Check Yourself	58	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	59
Point/Counterpoint: Brain-Based Education	25	(3)
Family and Community Partnerships: Promoting Literacy	28	(32)
Guidelines: Teaching the Preoperational Child	37	(2)
Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child	39	(2)
Helping Students to Use Formal Operations	41	(16)
Applying Vygotsky's Ideas in Teaching	57	(3)
Personal, Moral, and Social Development	60	(40)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	61	(1)
Understanding Ourselves and Others	62	(1)
Overview	62	(1)
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development	62	(1)
The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative	62	(2)
Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus Inferiority	64	(1)
Adolescence: The Search for Identity	65	(1)
Identity Statuses	65	(1)
Consequences of Different Statuses	65	(1)
Beyond the School Years	66	(1)
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem	66	(3)
The Structure of Self-Concept	67	(1)
How Self-Concept Develops	68	(1)
School Life and Self-Esteem	69	(2)
Gender, Ethnicity, and Self-Esteem	71	(3)
Diversity and Self-Esteem	72	(1)
Personal and Collective Self-Esteem	73	(1)
The Self and Others	74	(2)
Intention	74	(1)
Taking the Perspective of Others	74	(1)
Emotional Competence	75	(1)
Summary	76	(1)
Key Terms	76	(1)
Check Yourself	77	(1)
Moral Development	78	(1)
Overview	78	(1)
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development	78	(2)
Alternatives to Kohlberg's Theory	80	(1)
Cultural Differences in Moral Reasoning	80	(1)
Diversity in Reasoning: The Morality of Caring	80	(2)
Moral Behavior	82	(4)
Aggression	82	(1)
Bullies	83	(1)
Relational Aggression	83	(1)
Victims	84	(1)
When Aggression Leads to Violence	84	(1)
Cheating	85	(1)
Summary	86	(1)
Key Terms	86	(1)
Check Yourself	87	(1)
Socialization: Family, Peers, and Teachers	88	(1)
Overview	88	(1)
American Families Today	88	(1)
Divorce	88	(1)
Effects of Divorce	89	(1)
Peer Relationships and Peer Cultures	89	(2)
Who Is Likely to Have Problems with Peers?	90	(1)
Peer Cultures	90	(1)
New Roles for Teachers	91	(1)
Navigating Transitions	92	(2)
Young Children: Starting School	92	(1)
Students in the Middle Grades: Another Transition	92	(2)
Children and Youth at Risk	94	(3)
Child Abuse	94	(1)
Eating Disorders	95	(1)
Drug Abuse	96	(1)
Suicide	96	(1)
Summary	97	(1)
Key Terms	97	(1)
Check Yourself	98	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	99
Point/Counterpoint: What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students' Self-Esteem?	70	(4)
Family and Community Partnerships: Building Self-Esteem	74	(26)
Guidelines: Encouraging Initiative in Preschool Children	64	(1)
Encouraging Industry	64	(2)
Supporting Identity Formation	66	(9)
Encouraging Emotional Competence	75	(9)
Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation	84	(5)
Helping Children of Divorce	89	(2)
Supporting Personal and Social Development	91	(3)
Safety on the Internet	94	(6)
Learner Differences and Learning Needs	100	(46)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	101	(1)
Individual Differences: Intelligence, Cognitive Processing, and Learning Styles	102	(1)
Overview	102	(1)
Language and Labeling	102	(1)
Person-First Language	102	(1)
Disabilities and Handicaps	103	(1)
Individual Differences in Intelligence	103	(4)
Intelligence: One Ability or Many?	104	(1)
Multiple Intelligences	104	(2)
Multiple Intelligences Go to School	106	(1)
Intelligence as a Process	107	(2)
How Is Intelligence Measured?	109	(1)
Binet's Dilemma	109	(1)
Group versus Individual IQ Tests	109	(1)
What Does an IQ Score Mean?	110	(1)
Intelligence and Achievement	110	(1)
Intelligence: Heredity or Environment?	111	(1)
Cognitive Styles	111	(1)
Field Dependence and Field Independence	111	(1)
Impulsive and Reflective Cognitive Styles	112	(1)
Learning Styles and Preferences	112	(2)
What Are Learning Preferences?	113	(1)
Cautions	113	(1)
Summary	114	(1)
Key Terms	114	(1)
Check Yourself	115	(1)
Integration and Inclusion: Teaching Every Child in Today's Classroom	116	(1)
Overview	116	(1)
Least Restrictive Placement	116	(1)
Individualized Educational Program	117	(1)
The Rights of Students and Families	117	(1)
Prevalent Problems and Mild Disabilities	118	(1)
Students with Learning Disabilities	118	(3)
Student Characteristics	119	(2)
Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities	121	(1)
Students with Communication Disorders	121	(2)
Speech Disorders	121	(1)
Language Disorders	122	(1)
Students with Mental Retardation	123	(2)
Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders	125	(1)
Less Prevalent Problems and More Severe Disabilities	126	(1)
Students with Health Impairments	126	(2)
Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Disabilities	127	(1)
Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy)	127	(1)
Students Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing	128	(1)
Students with Low Vision and Blindness	128	(1)
Section 504 Protections for Students	129	(1)
Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders	130	(1)
Treating and Teaching Students with ADHD	131	(2)
Summary	133	(1)
Key Terms	134	(1)
Check Yourself	135	(1)
Ability Differences and Teaching	136	(1)
Overview	136	(1)
Between-Class Ability Grouping	136	(1)
Within-Class Ability Grouping	137	(2)
Students Who are Gifted and Talented: Who Are These Students?	139	(2)
What Is the Origin of These Gifts?	140	(1)
What Problems Do The Gifted Face?	141	(1)
Strategies for Identifying and Teaching Gifted Students	141	(2)
Recognizing Gifts and Talents	142	(1)
Teaching Gifted Students	142	(1)
Summary	143	(1)
Key Terms	144	(1)
Check Yourself	144	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	145
Point/Counterpoint: Is Tracking an Effective Strategy?	138
Family and Community Partnerships: Productive Conferences	118	(28)
Guidelines: Interpreting IQ Scores	110	(12)
Encouraging Language Development	122	(2)
Teaching Students with Mild Retardation	124	(2)
Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems	126	(13)
Grouping by Achievement	139	(7)
Culture and Community	146	(42)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	147	(1)
Diversity in Today's Classrooms	148	(1)
Overview	148	(1)
Individuals, Groups, and Society	148	(2)
American Cultural Diversity	150	(1)
Culture and Group Membership	150	(1)
Cautions in Interpreting Cultural Differences	150	(1)
Social Class Differences: Being Poor	151	(1)
SES and Achievement	152	(3)
Poor Health Care	152	(1)
Low Expectations---Low Self-Esteem	152	(1)
Learned Helplessness	153	(1)
Peer Influences and Resistance Cultures	153	(1)
Tracking	153	(1)
Childrearing Styles	154	(1)
Home Environment and Resources	154	(1)
Ethnic, Racial, and Cultural Differences: The Changing Demographics	155	(2)
Cultural Conflicts	156	(1)
Cultural Compatibility	156	(1)
Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement	157	(1)
The Legacy of Discrimination	158	(3)
The Development of Prejudice	159	(1)
Continuing Discrimination	160	(1)
Stereotype Threat	161	(2)
Short-Term Effects: Test Performance	161	(1)
Long-Term Effects: Disidentification	162	(1)
Combating Stereotype Threat	162	(1)
Summary	163	(1)
Key Terms	163	(1)
Check Yourself	164	(1)
Girls and Boys: Differences in the Classroom	165	(1)
Overview	165	(1)
Gender-Role Identity	165	(3)
Gender-Role Stereotyping in the Preschool Years	166	(1)
Gender Bias in the Curriculum	167	(1)
Sex Discrimination in Classrooms	167	(1)
Sex Differences in Mental Abilities	168	(1)
Eliminating Gender Bias	169	(2)
Summary	171	(1)
Key Terms	171	(1)
Check Yourself	172	(1)
Creating Culturally Compatible Classrooms	173	(1)
Overview	173	(1)
Social Organization	173	(1)
Learning Styles	173	(2)
Possible Differences	173	(2)
Cautions about Learning Styles Research	175	(1)
Sociolinguistics: Language Differences in the Classroom	175	(1)
Participation Structures	175	(1)
Sources of Misunderstanding	175	(1)
Dialects	176	(1)
Dialects and Pronunciation	176	(1)
Dialects and Teaching	176	(1)
Bilingualism	177	(4)
What Does Bilingualism Mean?	177	(1)
Becoming Bilingual	178	(1)
Bilingual Education	179	(2)
Research on Bilingual Programs	181	(1)
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy	181	(2)
Students Must Experience Academic Success	181	(1)
Develop/Maintain Their Cultural Competence	181	(1)
Develop a Critical Consciousness to Challenge the Status Quo	182	(1)
Teaching Every Student: Know Your Students, Respect Your Students, Teach Your Students	183	(2)
Know Your Students	183	(1)
Respect Your Students	183	(1)
Teach Your Students	184	(1)
Summary	185	(1)
Key Terms	185	(1)
Check Yourself	186	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	187
Point/Counterpoint: Do Boys and Girls Learn Differently?	170
Family and Community Partnerships: Building Learning Communities	158	(30)
Guidelines: Avoiding Sexism in Teaching	169	(9)
Dialects in the Classroom	178	(6)
Culturally Relevant Teaching	184	(4)
Behavioral Views of Learning	188	(38)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	189	(1)
Behavioral Explanations of Learning: Continguity, Classical Conditioning, and Operant Conditioning	190	(1)
Overview	190	(1)
Learning: A Definition	190	(1)
Learning Is Not Always What It Seems	191	(1)
Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning	192	(1)
Pavlov's Dilemma and Discovery: Classical Conditioning	192	(1)
Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction	193	(1)
Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses	194	(1)
The Work of Thorndike and Skinner	195	(1)
Types of Consequences	195	(3)
Reinforcement	196	(1)
Punishment	197	(1)
Reinforcement Schedules	198	(1)
Extinction	198	(1)
Antecedents and Behavior Change	199	(2)
Cueing	199	(1)
Prompting	200	(1)
Summary	201	(1)
Key Terms	201	(1)
Check Yourself	202	(1)
Applied Behavior Analysis	203	(1)
Overview	203	(1)
Methods for Encouraging Behaviors	203	(3)
Reinforcing with Teacher Attention	203	(2)
Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle	205	(1)
Shaping	205	(1)
Positive Practice	206	(1)
Coping with Undesirable Behavior	206	(4)
Negative Reinforcement	206	(2)
Satiation	208	(1)
Reprimands	208	(1)
Response Cost	209	(1)
Social Isolation	209	(1)
Some Cautions	209	(1)
Summary	210	(1)
Key Terms	210	(1)
Check Yourself	211	(1)
Behavioral Approaches to Teaching and Management	212	(1)
Overview	212	(1)
Mastery Learning	212	(1)
Group Consequences	213	(1)
Token Reinforcement Programs	213	(1)
Contingency Contract Programs	214	(1)
Recent Approaches: Self-Regulation and Cognitive Behavior Modification	215	(1)
Self-Management	216	(2)
Goal Setting	216	(1)
Monitoring and Evaluating Progress	216	(1)
Self-Reinforcement	217	(1)
Cognitive Behavior Modification and Self-Instruction	218	(1)
Criticisms of Behavioral Methods	219	(3)
Ethical Issues	222	(1)
Goals	222	(1)
Strategies	222	(1)
Summary	223	(1)
Key Terms	223	(1)
Check Yourself	224	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	225
Point/Counterpoint: Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning?	221
Family and Community Partnerships: Student Self-Management	218	(8)
Guidelines: Applying Classical Conditioning	194	(10)
Using Praise Appropriately	204	(3)
Encouraging Positive Behaviors	207	(2)
Using Punishment	209	(17)
Cognitive Views of Learning	226	(38)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	227	(1)
Elements of the Cognitive Perspective: Information Processing	228	(1)
Overview	228	(1)
Comparing Cognitive and Behavioral Views	228	(1)
The Importance of Knowledge in Learning	229	(1)
General and Specific Knowledge	230	(1)
Declarative, Procedural, and Conditional Knowledge	230	(1)
An Overview of the Information Processing Model of Memory	230	(2)
Sensory Memory	232	(2)
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory Memory	232	(1)
Perception	232	(1)
The Role of Attention	233	(1)
Attention and Teaching	233	(1)
Working Memory	234	(4)
The Central Executive	235	(1)
The Phonological Loop	235	(1)
The Visuospatial Sketchpad	236	(1)
Duration and Contents of Working Memory	236	(1)
Retaining Information in Working Memory	237	(1)
Forgetting	238	(1)
Summary	238	(1)
Key Terms	239	(1)
Check Yourself	240	(1)
Long-Term Memory: The Goal of Teaching	241	(1)
Overview	241	(1)
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Long-Term Memory	241	(1)
Explicit Memories: Semantic and Episodic	242	(3)
Propositions and Propositional Networks	243	(1)
Images	243	(1)
Schemas	243	(2)
Episodic Memory	245	(1)
Implicit Memories	245	(1)
Storing and Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory	246	(4)
Levels of Processing Theories	247	(1)
Retrieving Information from Long-Term Memory	247	(1)
Forgetting and Long-Term Memory	248	(2)
Summary	250	(1)
Key Terms	250	(1)
Check Yourself	251	(1)
Cognition, Metacognition, and Teaching	252	(1)
Overview	252	(1)
Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation	252	(1)
Individual Differences in Metacognition	253	(1)
Individual Differences and Working Memory	253	(2)
Developmental Differences	254	(1)
Individual Differences	254	(1)
Individual Differences and Long-Term Memory	255	(1)
Development of Declarative Knowledge	255	(3)
Making it Meaningful	255	(2)
Mnemonics	257	(1)
Rote Memorization	258	(1)
Becoming an Expert: Development of Procedural and Conditional Knowledge	258	(2)
Automated Basic Skills	259	(1)
Domain-Specific Strategies	260	(1)
Learning Outside School	260	(1)
Summary	261	(1)
Key Terms	261	(1)
Check Yourself	262	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	263
Point/Counterpoint: What's Wrong with Memorizing?	259	(2)
Family and Community Partnerships: Organizing Learning	261	(3)
Guidelines: Getting and Maintaining Attention	234	(15)
Using Information Processing Ideas in the Classroom	249	(15)
Complex Cognitive Processes	264	(38)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	265	(1)
Learning and Teaching about Concepts	266	(1)
Overview	266	(1)
Views of Concept Learning	266	(1)
Prototypes and Exemplars	266	(1)
Concepts and Schemas	267	(1)
Strategies for Teaching Concepts	267	(3)
An Example Concept-Attainment Lesson	267	(1)
Lesson Components	268	(1)
Lesson Structure	268	(2)
Extending and Connecting Concepts	270	(1)
Teaching Concepts through Discovery	270	(1)
Structure and Discovery	270	(1)
Discovery in Action	270	(1)
Teaching Concepts through Exposition	271	(2)
Advance Organizers	272	(1)
Steps in an Expository Lesson	273	(1)
Teaching Concepts in Diverse Classrooms	273	(1)
Summary	274	(1)
Key Terms	274	(1)
Check Yourself	275	(1)
Problem Solving	276	(1)
Overview	276	(1)
Problem Solving: General or Domain-Specific?	276	(1)
Identifying: Problem Finding	277	(1)
Defining Goals and Representing the Problem	277	(3)
Focusing Attention	278	(1)
Understanding the Words	278	(1)
Understanding the Whole Problem	278	(1)
Translation and Schema Training	279	(1)
The Results of Problem Representation	280	(1)
Exploring Possible Solution Strategies	280	(1)
Algorithms	280	(1)
Heuristics	281	(1)
Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back	281	(1)
Factors That Hinder Problem Solving	282	(2)
Functional Fixedness	282	(1)
Response Set	283	(1)
The Importance of Flexibility	284	(1)
Effective Problem Solving: What Do the Experts Do?	284	(3)
Expert Knowledge	284	(2)
Novice Knowledge	286	(1)
Summary	287	(1)
Key Terms	287	(1)
Check Yourself	288	(1)
Teaching for Transfer	289	(1)
Overview	289	(1)
Learning Strategies and Tactics	289	(3)
Deciding What Is Important	290	(1)
Summaries	290	(1)
Underlining and Highlighting	290	(1)
Taking Notes	291	(1)
Visual Tools for Organizing	292	(1)
Reading Strategies	292	(2)
Applying Learning Strategies	294	(2)
Valuing Learning	294	(1)
Effort and Efficacy	295	(1)
Epistemological Beliefs	295	(1)
A Contemporary View of Teaching for Transfer	296	(1)
Teaching for Positive Transfer	297	(2)
What Is Worth Learning?	298	(1)
How Can Teachers Help?	298	(1)
Stages of Transfer for Strategies	298	(1)
Summary	299	(1)
Key Terms	300	(1)
Check Yourself	300	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	301
Point/Counterpoint: Should Students Be Allowed to Use Calculators and Spell-Checkers?	283	(16)
Family and Community Partnerships: Promoting Transfer	299	(3)
Guidelines Applying Bruner's Ideas	272	(1)
Applying Ausubel's Ideas	273	(13)
Problem Solving	286	(9)
Becoming an Expert Student	295	(7)
Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning	302	(36)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	303	(1)
Social Learning and Social Cognitive Theories	304	(1)
Overview	304	(1)
Parents, Peers, and Teachers	304	(2)
Learning by Observing Others	306	(2)
Attention	306	(1)
Retention	307	(1)
Production	307	(1)
Motivation and Reinforcement	307	(1)
Factors That Influence Observational Learning	308	(1)
Observational Learning in Teaching	308	(2)
Directing Attention	309	(1)
Fine-Tuning Already-Learned Behaviors	309	(1)
Strengthening or Weakening Inhibitions	309	(1)
Teaching New Behaviors	309	(1)
Arousing Emotion	309	(1)
Reciprocal Determinism	310	(2)
Summary	312	(1)
Key Terms	312	(1)
Check Yourself	313	(1)
Constructivism and Situated Learning	314	(1)
Overview	314	(1)
Constructivist Views of Learning	315	(2)
Psychological/Individual Constructivism	315	(1)
Vygotsky's Social Constructivism	316	(1)
Constructionism	316	(1)
How Is Knowledge Constructed?	317	(1)
Knowledge: Situated or General?	318	(1)
Common Elements of Constructivist Perspectives	318	(2)
Complex Learning Environments and Authentic Tasks	319	(1)
Social Negotiation	319	(1)
Multiple Perspectives and Representations of Content	319	(1)
Understanding the Knowledge Construction Process	320	(1)
Student Ownership of Learning	320	(1)
Looking Back at Learning	320	(2)
Summary	322	(1)
Key Terms	322	(1)
Check Yourself	323	(1)
Applications of Constructivist and Situated Perspectives on Learning	324	(1)
Overview	324	(1)
Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning	324	(4)
Examples of Inquiry	324	(2)
Problem-Based Learning	326	(1)
Research on Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning	327	(1)
Dialogue and Instructional Conversations	328	(1)
Cognitive Apprenticeships	329	(2)
A Cognitive Apprenticeship in Learning Mathematics	330	(1)
Cognitive Apprenticeships in Thinking	331	(2)
Developing Thinking in Every Class	331	(1)
Critical Thinking	331	(2)
The Language of Thinking	333	(1)
An Integretated Constructivist Program: Fostering Communities of Learners	333	(2)
Working with Families	335	(1)
Summary	335	(1)
Key Terms	335	(1)
Check Yourself	336	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	337
Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving?	332	(2)
Family and Community Partnerships: Communicating about Innovations	334	(4)
Guidelines: Using Observational Learning	310	(28)
Motivation in Learning and Teaching	338	(48)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	339	(1)
Motivation: A Definition and Four General Approaches	340	(1)
Overview	340	(1)
Meeting Some Students	340	(1)
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation	341	(2)
Behavioral Approaches to Motivation	343	(1)
Humanistic Approaches to Motivation	343	(1)
Maslow's Hierarchy	343	(1)
Cognitive Approaches to Motivation	344	(2)
Attribution Theory	344	(1)
Attributions in the Classroom	345	(1)
Teacher Actions and Student Attributions	345	(1)
Expectancy x Value Theories	346	(1)
Sociocultural Conceptions of Motivation	346	(2)
Summary	348	(1)
Key Terms	348	(1)
Check Yourself	349	(1)
Goals, Interests, and Emotions	350	(1)
Overview	350	(1)
Types of Goals and Goal Orientations	350	(3)
Four Goal Orientations in School	351	(1)
Wait---Are Performance Goals Always Bad?	351	(1)
Beyond Mastery and Performance	352	(1)
Feedback and Goal Acceptance	353	(1)
Goals: Lessons for Teachers	353	(1)
Tapping Interests and Emotions	353	(1)
Arousal: Excitement and Anxiety in Learning	354	(4)
Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity	355	(2)
Anxiety in the Classroom	357	(1)
How Does Anxiety Interfere with Achievement?	357	(1)
Coping with Anxiety	357	(1)
Interests and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers	358	(1)
Summary	359	(1)
Key Terms	359	(1)
Check Yourself	360	(1)
Self-Schemas	361	(1)
Overview	361	(1)
Beliefs about Ability	361	(1)
Beliefs about Self-Efficacy	362	(2)
Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem	362	(1)
Sources of Self-Efficacy	362	(1)
Efficacy and Motivation	363	(1)
Teacher Efficacy	363	(1)
Self-Determination	364	(1)
Self-Determination in the Classroom	364	(1)
Information and Control	364	(1)
Learned Helplessness	365	(1)
Self-Worth	366	(1)
Self-Schemas: Lessons for Teachers	367	(1)
Summary	368	(1)
Key Terms	368	(1)
Check Yourself	369	(1)
Motivation to Learn in School	370	(1)
Overview	370	(1)
On TARGET for Learning	370	(1)
Tasks for Learning	370	(3)
Task Value	371	(1)
Authentic Tasks	371	(2)
Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment	373	(2)
Supporting Choices	373	(2)
Recognizing Accomplishment	375	(1)
Grouping, Evaluation, and Time	375	(2)
Grouping and Goal Structures	375	(1)
Evaluation	375	(1)
Time	376	(1)
Bringing it All Together: Strategies to Encourage Motivation and Thoughtful Learning	377	(1)
Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations	378	(1)
Do I Want to Do It? Seeing the Value of Learning	379	(2)
Attainment and Intrinsic Value	379	(1)
Instrumental Value	380	(1)
What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Staying Focused on the Task	381	(1)
Summary	382	(1)
Key Terms	383	(1)
Check Yourself	384	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	385
Point/Counterpoint: Does Making Learning Fun Make Good Learning?	356	(26)
Family and Community Partnerships: Motivation to Learn	382	(4)
Guidelines: Building on Students' Interests	355	(3)
Coping with Anxiety	358	(7)
Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy	365	(2)
Encouraging Self-Efficacy and Self-Worth	367	(19)
Creating Learning Environments	386	(36)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	387	(1)
Creating a Positive Learning Environment	388	(1)
Overview	388	(1)
The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation	388	(1)
The Goals of Classroom Management	389	(3)
More Time for Learning	390	(1)
Access to Learning	390	(1)
Management for Self-Management	391	(1)
Some Research Results	392	(1)
Rules and Procedures Required	392	(5)
Procedures	393	(1)
Rules	393	(1)
Rules for Elementary School	394	(1)
Rules for Secondary School	395	(1)
Consequences	395	(1)
Who Sets the Rules and Consequences?	396	(1)
Planning Spaces for Learning	397	(1)
Interest-Areas	397	(1)
Personal Territories	397	(1)
Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class	398	(2)
Effective Managers for Elementary Students	398	(2)
Effective Managers for Secondary Students	400	(1)
Summary	400	(1)
Key Terms	400	(1)
Check Yourself	401	(1)
Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning	402	(1)
Overview	402	(1)
Encouraging Engagement	402	(1)
Prevention Is the Best Medicine	402	(2)
Withitness	403	(1)
Overlapping and Group Focus	403	(1)
Movement Management	403	(1)
Dealing with Discipline Problems	404	(1)
Special Problems with Secondary Students	405	(3)
Summary	408	(1)
Key Terms	408	(1)
Check Yourself	409	(1)
The Need for Communication	410	(1)
Overview	410	(1)
Message Sent---Message Received	410	(1)
Diagnosis: Whose Problem Is It?	411	(1)
Counseling: The Student's Problem	411	(1)
Confrontation and Assertive Discipline	412	(2)
Messages	412	(1)
Assertive Discipline	412	(1)
Confrontations and Negotiations	413	(1)
Student Conflicts and Confrontations	414	(2)
Peer Harassment	414	(1)
Violence in the Schools	415	(1)
Summing It Up: Learning Environments for All Students	416	(1)
Culturally Responsive Management	417	(1)
Communicating with Families about Classroom Management	418	(1)
Summary	419	(1)
Key Terms	419	(1)
Check Yourself	420	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	421
Point/Counterpoint: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea?	406	(12)
Family and Community Partnerships: Classroom Management	418	(4)
Guidelines: Establishing Class Procedures	394	(5)
Designing Learning Spaces	399	(4)
Keeping Students Engaged	403	(3)
Imposing Penalties	406	(16)
Teaching for Academic Learning	422	(46)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	423	(1)
The First Step: Planning	424	(1)
Overview	424	(1)
Objectives for Learning	425	(2)
Mager: Start with the Specific	425	(1)
Gronlund: Start with the General	426	(1)
Flexible and Creative Plans---Using Taxonomies	427	(2)
The Cognitive Domain	427	(1)
Bloom 2001	427	(1)
The Affective Domain	428	(1)
The Psychomotor Domain	429	(1)
Another View: Planning from a Constructivist Perspective	429	(3)
An Example of Constructivist Planning	430	(1)
Integrated and Thematic Plans	430	(2)
Summary	432	(1)
Key Terms	432	(1)
Check Yourself	433	(1)
Teacher-Directed Instruction and Teacher Expectations	434	(1)
Overview	434	(1)
Characteristics of Effective Teachers	434	(2)
Teachers' Knowledge	434	(1)
Clarity and Organization	435	(1)
Warmth and Enthusiasm	435	(1)
Explanation and Direct Instruction	436	(3)
Direct Instruction	437	(1)
Rosenshine's Six Teaching Functions	437	(1)
Why Does Direct Instruction Work?	438	(1)
Criticisms of Direct Instruction	439	(1)
Seatwork and Homework	439	(3)
Seatwork	440	(1)
Homework	440	(1)
Making Seatwork and Homework Valuable	440	(2)
Questioning and Recitation	442	(3)
Kinds of Questions	443	(1)
Fitting the Questions to the Students	444	(1)
Responding to Student Answers	445	(1)
Group Discussion	445	(1)
Teacher Expectations: Two Kinds of Expectation Effects	446	(1)
Sources of Expectations	447	(1)
Do Teachers' Expectations Really Affect Students' Achievement?	448	(1)
Teacher Behavior and Student Reaction	448	(3)
Instructional Strategies	448	(1)
Teacher---Student Interactions	449	(2)
Summary	451	(1)
Key Terms	451	(1)
Check Yourself	452	(1)
Student-Centered Teaching in Content Areas and Inclusive Classrooms	453	(1)
Overview	453	(1)
Learning to Read and Write	454	(2)
Balance in Reading and Writing	454	(1)
Comprehension Monitoring and Reading: Reciprocal Teaching	454	(2)
Applying Reciprocal Teaching	456	(1)
Learning and Teaching Mathematics	456	(1)
Learning and Teaching Science	457	(2)
Beyond the Debates to Outstanding Teaching	459	(1)
Effective Teaching in Inclusive Classrooms	460	(1)
Resource Rooms, Collaborative Consultation, and Cooperative Teaching	461	(1)
Working with Individual Students	462	(1)
Technology and Exceptional Students	462	(2)
Summary	464	(1)
Key Terms	465	(1)
Check Yourself	466	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	467
Point/Counterpoint: Is Homework a Valuable Use of Time?	441	(1)
Family and Community Partnerships: Homework	442	(26)
Guidelines: Using Instructional Objectives	429	(7)
Teaching Effectively	436	(10)
Productive Group Discussions	446	(4)
Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations	450	(9)
Teaching for Conceptual Change	459	(9)
Teaching for Self-Regulation, Creativity, and Tolerance	468	(34)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	469	(1)
Self-Regulation and Agency	470	(1)
Overview	470	(1)
What Influences Self-Regulation?	470	(1)
Knowledge	470	(1)
Motivation	471	(1)
Volition	471	(1)
Family Influences	471	(1)
Self-Regulation Processes	471	(2)
Social and Emotional Learning	473	(2)
What Is EQ?	474	(1)
EQ Goes to School	475	(1)
Cautions	475	(1)
Social Skills	475	(1)
Life Skills: Preventing High-Risk Behaviors	476	(1)
Compassion and Tolerance	477	(2)
Group Work and Cooperation in Learning	479	(2)
Beyond Groups to Cooperation	479	(1)
What Can Go Wrong: Misuses of Group Learning	480	(1)
Making Cooperative Learning Work	481	(2)
Setting Up Cooperative Groups	481	(1)
Giving and Receiving Explanations	481	(1)
Assigning Roles	482	(1)
Strategies for Cooperation	483	(4)
Jigsaw	483	(1)
Reciprocal Questioning	484	(1)
Scripted Cooperation	485	(1)
STAD	485	(2)
Summary	487	(1)
Key Terms	487	(1)
Check Yourself	488	(1)
Creativity and Community	489	(1)
Overview	489	(1)
Defining Creativity	489	(1)
What Is the Source of Creativity?	489	(1)
Creativity and Cognition	490	(1)
Creativity and Diversity	490	(1)
Assessing Creativity	490	(1)
Creativity in the Classroom	491	(2)
Brainstorming	491	(1)
Take Your Time---and Play!	492	(1)
The Big C: Revolutionary Innovation	493	(1)
Creating a Classroom Learning Community	493	(3)
Getting Started on Community	496	(1)
Conflict and Negotiation	496	(1)
Respect and Protect	497	(1)
Community Outside the Classroom: Service Learning	497	(2)
Summary	499	(1)
Key Terms	499	(1)
Check Yourself	500	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	501
Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach Character and Compassion?	478
Family and Community Partnerships: Parents Supporting Self-Regulation	472	(30)
Guidelines: Using Cooperative Learning	486	(6)
Encouraging Creativity	492	(10)
Evaluation, Measurement, and Assessment	502	(65)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do?	503	(1)
Definitions and Concepts	504	(1)
Overview	504	(1)
Norm-Referenced Tests	505	(1)
Criterion-Referenced Tests	505	(1)
What Test Scores Mean	506	(3)
Frequency Distributions	507	(1)
Measurements of Central Tendency and Standard Deviation	507	(1)
The Normal Distribution	508	(1)
Types of Scores	509	(3)
Percentile Rank Scores	509	(1)
Grade Equivalent Scores	510	(1)
Standard Scores	511	(1)
Interpreting Test Scores	512	(5)
Reliability	512	(1)
True Score	512	(1)
Confidence Interval	513	(1)
Validity	513	(1)
Absence of Bias	514	(3)
Summary	517	(1)
Key Terms	517	(1)
Check Yourself	518	(1)
Standardized Tests	519	(1)
Overview	519	(1)
Achievement Tests: What Has the Student Learned?	519	(3)
Using Information from a Norm-Referenced Achievement Test	519	(3)
Diagnostic Tests: What Are the Student's Strengths and Weaknesses?	522	(1)
Aptitude Tests: How Well Will the Student Do in the Future?	522	(1)
IQ and Scholastic Aptitude	522	(1)
Discussing Test Results with Families	523	(1)
How Widespread Is Standardized Testing?	523	(1)
Accountability and High Stakes Testing	524	(2)
Testing Teachers	526	(2)
PRAXIS™	527	(1)
National Board Certification	527	(1)
The Uses of Testing in American Society	528	(1)
Preparing for Tests	528	(1)
New Directions in Standardized Testing: Authentic Assessment	529	(3)
Changes in the SAT	530	(2)
Accommodating Diversity in Testing	532	(1)
Summary	532	(1)
Key Terms	532	(1)
Check Yourself	533	(1)
Getting the Most from Traditional Assessment Approaches: Testing and Grading	534	(1)
Overview	534	(1)
Formative and Summative Assessment	534	(1)
Planning for Testing	535	(1)
When to Test?	535	(1)
Judging Textbook Tests	535	(1)
Objective Testing	535	(3)
Using Multiple-Choice Tests	536	(1)
Writing Multiple-Choice Questions	536	(2)
Essay Testing	538	(2)
Constructing Essay Tests	538	(1)
Evaluating Essays: Dangers	538	(1)
Evaluating Essays: Methods	539	(1)
Grades, Grading, and Students	540	(1)
Effects of Failure	540	(1)
Effects of Feedback	541	(1)
Grades and Motivation	541	(1)
Grading and Reporting: Nuts and Bolts	542	(1)
Criterion-Referenced versus Norm-Referenced Grading	543	(1)
Criterion-Referenced Systems	543	(1)
Norm-Referenced Systems	543	(1)
The Point System and Percentage Grading	543	(3)
The Contract System and Grading Rubrics	546	(1)
Grading on Effort and Improvement	546	(2)
Cautions: Being Fair	548	(1)
Diversity and Grading	548	(1)
Beyond Grading: Communication	549	(2)
Summary	551	(1)
Key Terms	551	(1)
Check Yourself	552	(1)
Innovations in Classroom Assessment	553	(1)
Overview	553	(1)
Authentic Classroom Assessment	553	(2)
Performance in Context: Portfolios and Exhibitions	555	(3)
Portfolios	556	(1)
Exhibitions	557	(1)
Evaluating Portfolios and Performances	558	(3)
Scoring Rubrics	558	(3)
Reliability, Validity, Generalizability	561	(1)
Diversity and Equity in Performance Assessment	561	(1)
Assessing Learning Potential: Dynamic Assessment	561	(1)
Summary	562	(1)
Key Terms	563	(1)
Check Yourself	564	(1)
Teachers' Casebook: What Would They Do?	565
Point/Counterpoint: Should Tests Be Used to Hold Teachers Accountable?	525	(29)
Point/Counterpoint: Which Is Better---Traditional Tests or Authentic Assessments?	554
Family and Community Partnerships: Explaining and Using Test Results	515	(35)
Family and Community Partnerships: Conferences	550	(17)
Guidelines: Increasing Reliability and Validity	514	(2)
Becoming an Expert Test-Taker	516	(15)
Accommodations in Testing	531	(6)
Writing Objective Test Items	537	(5)
Minimizing the Detrimental Effects of Grades	542	(5)
Using Any Grading System	547	(11)
Creating Portfolios	558	(2)
Developing a Rubric	560	(7)
Appendix A: Becoming a Professional	567	(18)
Appendix B: Standards and Licensure: PRAXIS II™ and INTASC	585	(16)
Glossary	601	(10)
References	611	(38)
Name Index	649	(12)
Subject Index	661