Educational Research An Introduction

by Gall, M. D.; Gall, Joyce P.; Borg, Walter R.

• ISBN13: 9780205488490
• ISBN10: 0205488498
• Edition: 8th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-05-09
• Publisher: Pearson

Summary

"Without question, this text is the most comprehensive, well-written, and practical introductory research methods textbook available. Gall, Gall, & Borg have stood the test of time." Susan N. Kushner Benson, University of Akron "This is a very student-friendly text." Ann Hassenpflug, University of Akron Educational Research: An Introduction, Eighth Edition, is the most comprehensive and widely respected text for scholars and for the preparation of graduate level students who need to understand educational research in depth and who may conduct original research for a dissertation or thesis. A comprehensive introduction to the major research methods and types of data analysis used today, this text provides detailed coverage of all facets of research, from the epistemology of quantitative and qualitative scientific inquiry to the design, data collection, analysis, and reporting of a completed study. New To This

Table of Contents

Preface	xxvii
About the Authors	xxxi
PART I: Introduction
1. The Nature of Educational Research	2	(37)
Contributions of Research to Knowledge about Education	3	(7)
Description	3	(1)
Prediction	4	(1)
Improvement	5	(1)
Explanation	6	(4)
Uses of Theory	8	(1)
Approaches to Theory Development	8	(1)
Example of Theory Testing	9	(1)
Application of Research to Educational Practice	10	(5)
Limitations of Research Knowledge	12	(2)
The Importance of Basic Research	14	(1)
Funding for Educational Research	15	(1)
Epistemological Issues in Educational Research	15	(16)
Positivism and Postpositivism	15	(6)
Constructivism	21	(2)
Objective and Constructed Realities	23	(3)
Cases and Populations	24	(2)
Numerical and Verbal Representations of Social Reality	26	(2)
Mechanical, Interpretive, and Structural Views of Causation	28	(2)
Postmodernism	30	(1)
Quantitative and Qualitative Research	31	(3)
Mixed-Methods Research	32	(2)
A Definition of Research	34	(2)
Learning How to Do Educational Research	36	(1)
Self-Check Test	37	(2)
PART II: Planning a Research Study	39	(56)
2. The Research Process: From Proposal to Final Report	40	(28)
Introduction	41	(1)
Identifying a Research Problem	41	(8)
Reading the Research Literature	42	(2)
Doing Theory-Based Research	44	(1)
Example of Theory-Based Research	44	(1)
Advantages of Theory-Based Research	45	(1)
Replicating and Extending Previous Research	45	(3)
Working on a Team Project	48	(1)
Preparing a Research Proposal	49	(7)
Introductory Section	49	(4)
Research Hypotheses in Quantitative Research	50	(1)
Research Hypotheses in Qualitative Research	51	(1)
Research Questions and Purposes	52	(1)
Literature Review Section	53	(1)
Research Design Section	53	(1)
Research Methods Section	54	(1)
Data Analysis Section	54	(1)
Protection of Human Subjects Section	55	(1)
Time Line Section	55	(1)
Conducting a Pilot Study	56	(1)
Using the Proposal in Writing the Dissertation	56	(7)
Format	58	(1)
Front Matter	58	(1)
Introductory Chapter	59	(1)
Literature Review Chapter	59	(2)
Research Method Chapter	61	(1)
Results Chapter	61	(1)
Discussion Chapter	62	(1)
Back Matter	63	(1)
Preparing a Journal Article	63	(2)
Preparing a Paper for a Professional Meeting	65	(1)
Recommendations for Planning and Reporting Research	66	(1)
Self-Check Test	67	(1)
3. Ethics and Site Relations in Educational Research	68	(27)
The Importance of Ethics and Site Relations in Educational Research	68	(1)
Typical Aspects of Educational Research That May Raise Ethical Concerns	69	(7)
Planning and Design of Research	70	(1)
Researcher Qualifications	70	(1)
Conflict of Interest	70	(1)
Neglect of Important Topics	70	(1)
Research Methodology	71	(3)
Control Group Experience	71	(1)
Use of Deception	71	(1)
Use of Tests	72	(1)
Termination of Treatment Conditions	73	(1)
Data Collection and Analysis	73	(1)
Reporting of Research	74	(2)
Authorship	74	(1)
Plagiarism	75	(1)
Partial or Dual Publication	75	(1)
Formal Regulation of Research Ethics	76	(2)
Statements of Ethical Principles	76	(1)
Government Regulations	76	(1)
Ethical Standards of the American Educational Research Association	76	(2)
Ethical Principles of the American Psychological Association	78	(1)
Institutional Review Boards' Role in Ensuring Research Ethics	78	(9)
The Design and Purpose of an IRB	78	(1)
Examples of Research Situations That Call for IRB Review	79	(1)
Criteria for IRB Approval of a Research Project	80	(7)
Assessment of the Risk-Benefit Ratio	80	(1)
Selection of Participants	81	(1)
Obtaining Informed Consent	82	(2)
Maintenance of Privacy and Confidentiality	84	(2)
Treatment of Vulnerable Populations	86	(1)
Site Relations in Educational Research	87	(5)
Location of a Research Site	87	(1)
Securing Permission and Cooperation	88	(2)
Building a Relationship with the Site	90	(1)
Dealing with Human Relations Issues	91	(1)
Recommendations for Ensuring That a Research Study Is Ethical, Legal, and Harmonious	92	(1)
Self-Check Test	93	(2)
4. Reviewing the Literature	95	(28)
Purposes of a Literature Review	96	(2)
Major Steps in a Literature Review	98	(1)
Searching Preliminary Sources	99	(8)
Types of Documents Indexed by Preliminary Sources	99	(1)
Content and Coverage of Online Preliminary Sources	100	(1)
Popular Online Preliminary Sources	100	(3)
Search Strategies in Using Preliminary Sources	103	(2)
Displaying Records in Preliminary Sources	105	(2)
Using Secondary Sources	107	(3)
Reading Primary Sources	110	(2)
Classifying Primary Sources	111	(1)
Critical Evaluation of Research Studies	111	(1)
Synthesizing the Findings of Your Literature Review	112	(9)
Synthesizing Quantitative Research Findings	114	(4)
The Narrative Review	115	(1)
Vote Counting	115	(1)
The Chi-Square Method	115	(1)
Meta-Analysis and Effect Size	116	(2)
Synthesizing Qualitative Research Findings	118	(3)
Recommendations for Reviewing Research Literature	121	(1)
Self-Check Test	121	(2)
PART III: Research Methods	123	(174)
5. Statistical Techniques	124	(41)
The Use of Statistics in Educational Research	125	(4)
Example of Statistical Analysis in a Research Study	125	(1)
The Need for Judgment in Statistical Analysis	126	(2)
Acquiring Statistical Expertise	128	(1)
Types of Scores	129	(3)
Continuous Scores	129	(2)
Age and Grade Equivalents	130	(1)
Standard Scores	131	(1)
Rank Scores	131	(1)
Categories	132	(1)
Descriptive Statistics	132	(5)
Measures of Central Tendency	133	(2)
Mean, Median, and Mode	134	(1)
Skewness	134	(1)
Categorical Data	135	(1)
Measures of Variability	135	(2)
Standard Deviation	135	(1)
Normal Curve	135	(1)
Other Measures of Variability	136	(1)
Correlational Statistics	137	(1)
Inferential Statistics	137	(9)
Generalizing from a Sample to a Population	137	(1)
The Null Hypothesis	138	(1)
Tests of Statistical Significance	138	(2)
Levels of Statistical Significance	139	(1)
Type I and Type II Errors	139	(1)
Interpretation of Significance Tests	140	(2)
Alpha and Probability Values	140	(1)
Misinterpretation of pValues	140	(2)
Criticisms of Significance Tests	142	(1)
Types of Significance Tests	142	(1)
Statistical Power Analysis	142	(4)
Supplements to Significance Tests	146	(4)
Confidence Limits	146	(2)
Replication of Research Results	148	(1)
Effect Size	149	(1)
Psychometric Statistics	150	(1)
Problems in Statistical Analysis	151	(9)
The Need for Exploratory Data Analysis	151	(5)
Stem-and-Leaf Displays	152	(2)
Advantages of Stem-and-Leaf Displays	154	(1)
Graphical Displays	155	(1)
Missing Data	156	(2)
The Unit of Statistical Analysis	158	(2)
Multilevel Analysis	159	(1)
Processing Statistical Data	160	(3)
Computer Hardware	160	(1)
Computer Software	161	(1)
Computer Consultants	161	(1)
Checking Data Analyses for Accuracy	162	(1)
Storing Research Data	162	(1)
Recommendations for Doing Statistical Analyses	163	(1)
Self-Check Test	163	(2)
6. Selecting a Sample	165	(27)
Sampling Logic in Research	166	(1)
Sampling in Quantitative Research	166	(11)
Defining the Population of Interest	166	(3)
Target and Accessible Populations	166	(2)
Inferential Leaps from a Sample to a Population	168	(1)
Determining Population Validity	169	(1)
Types of Probability Sampling	170	(4)
Simple Random Sampling	170	(2)
Systematic Random Sampling	172	(1)
Stratified Random Sampling	173	(1)
Cluster Sampling	173	(1)
Example of Sampling a Phenomenon Rather Than Individuals	174	(1)
Nonprobability Sampling	174	(2)
Convenience Sampling	175	(1)
Determining Sample Size for a Quantitative Research Study	176	(1)
Sampling in Qualitative Research	177	(9)
Rationale of Purposeful Sampling	178	(1)
Applying Replication Logic	178	(2)
Types of Purposeful Sampling	180	(5)
Strategies to Select Cases Representing a Key Characteristic	180	(3)
Strategies Reflecting a Conceptual Rationale	183	(1)
Emergent Strategies	184	(1)
Strategy Lacking a Rationale	185	(1)
Determining the Number of Cases for a Qualitative Research Study	185	(1)
Volunteers in Research Samples	186	(4)
Characteristics of Research Volunteers	186	(3)
Volunteers in Research Requiring Parental Consent	187	(1)
Checking Volunteer Characteristics	188	(1)
Improving the Rate of Volunteering	189	(1)
Recommendations for Selecting a Research Sample	190	(1)
Self-Check Test	190	(2)
7. Collecting Research Data with Tests and Self-Report Measures	192	(35)
Use of Tests and Self-Report Measures in Educational Research	193	(1)
Characteristics of a Good Test in Research	194	(14)
Criteria for Judging the Quality of Tests	194	(1)
Objectivity	194	(1)
Standard Conditions of Administration and Scoring	194	(1)
Standards for Interpretation	195	(1)
Fairness	195	(1)
Test Validity	195	(5)
Evidence from Test Content	196	(1)
Evidence from Response Processes	197	(1)
Evidence from Internal Structure	197	(1)
Evidence from Relationship to Other Variables	198	(1)
Evidence from Consequences of Testing	199	(1)
Test Reliability	200	(8)
Types of Test Reliability	201	(2)
Use of Generalizability Theory	203	(1)
Standard Error of Measurement	203	(1)
Use of Item Response Theory	204	(4)
Approaches to Measurement	208	(5)
Standardized versus Locally Constructed Tests	208	(1)
Referenced Test Scores	209	(3)
Norm-Referenced Measurement	209	(1)
Criterion-Referenced Measurement	210	(1)
Individual-Referenced Measurement	211	(1)
Computer-Based Testing	212	(1)
Use of Computers in Test Development	212	(1)
Use of Computers in Test Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation	212	(1)
Individual versus Group Testing	213	(1)
Types of Tests and Self-Report Measures	213	(9)
Measures of Performance	214	(4)
Intelligence Tests	214	(1)
Aptitude Tests	214	(1)
Achievement Tests	214	(1)
Diagnostic Tests	215	(1)
Performance Assessment	215	(3)
Measures of Personal Characteristics	218	(2)
Personality Inventories	218	(1)
Projective Techniques	218	(1)
Measures of Specific Personality Traits	219	(1)
Measures of Self-Concept	219	(1)
Measures of Learning Styles and Habits	219	(1)
Attitude Scales	220	(1)
Measures of Vocational Interest	220	(1)
Obtaining Information about Tests and Self-Report Measures	220	(2)
Searching Preliminary and Secondary Sources	221	(1)
Reading the Test Manual	221	(1)
Examining the Test Itself	221	(1)
Contacting the Test Developer	222	(1)
Using Tests or Self-Report Measures in a Research Project	222	(3)
Developing Your Own Test	222	(1)
Dealing with Resistance to Tests	222	(1)
Testing in Field Sites	223	(1)
Gaining the Cooperation of Test-Takers	224	(1)
Recommendations for Using Tests and Self-Report Measures in Research	225	(1)
Self-Check Test	225	(2)
8. Collecting Research Data with Questionnaires and Interviews	227	(35)
Questionnaires and Interviews as Data-Collection Methods	228	(2)
Selecting between Questionnaires and Interviews	228	(1)
Validity and Reliability Issues	229	(1)
Survey Research	230	(1)
Steps in Constructing and Administering a Research Questionnaire	230	(13)
Step 1: Defining Research Objectives	230	(2)
Step 2: Selecting a Sample	232	(1)
Step 3: Designing the Questionnaire	233	(3)
Anonymity of Respondents	233	(1)
Item Form	233	(2)
Use of Questionnaires in the Measurement of Attitudes	235	(1)
Web Questionnaires	236	(1)
Step 4: Pilot-Testing the Questionnaire	236	(1)
Step 5: Precontacting the Sample	237	(1)
Step 6: Writing a Cover Letter	237	(3)
Step 7: Following Up with Nonrespondents	240	(1)
Step 8: Analyzing Questionnaire Data	241	(2)
Steps in Preparing and Conducting Research Interviews	243	(16)
Step 1: Defining the Purpose of the Interview	243	(2)
Key Informant Interviews	243	(1)
Survey Interviews	244	(1)
Focus Group Interviews	244	(1)
Step 2: Selecting a Sample	245	(1)
Step 3: Designing the Interview Format	245	(4)
Interview Formats in Quantitative Research	246	(1)
Interview Formats in Qualitative Research	247	(1)
Telephone Interviews	247	(1)
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviews	248	(1)
Web Interviews	249	(1)
Step 4: Developing Questions	249	(1)
Step 5: Selecting and Training Interviewers	250	(3)
Distinctive Respondents	250	(2)
Respondents as Interviewers	252	(1)
Training of Interviewers	252	(1)
Step 6: Pilot-Testing the Interview	253	(1)
Step 7: Conducting the Interview	254	(3)
Interviewing Tasks	254	(2)
Recording Interview Data	256	(1)
Step 8: Analyzing Interview Data	257	(2)
Recommendations for Using a Questionnaire or an Interview Guide to Collect Research Data	259	(1)
Self-Check Test	260	(2)
9. Collecting Research Data through Observation and Content Analysis	262	(35)
Forms of Observation and Content Analysis	263	(1)
Reactive Observation in Quantitative Research	264	(20)
Defining Observational Variables	264	(2)
Types of Observational Variables	266	(1)
Recording and Analyzing Observations	266	(3)
Types of Recording Procedures	266	(3)
Selecting an Observation Recording Procedure	269	(2)
Standard Observation Forms	270	(1)
Audio and Video Recording	270	(1)
Use of Computers and Other Electronic Devices	271	(1)
Selecting and Training Observers	271	(2)
Determining Observer Agreement	272	(1)
Reducing Observer Effects	273	(2)
Types of Observer Effects	273	(2)
Reactive Observation in Qualitative Research	275	(3)
Purpose of Observation in Qualitative Research	276	(1)
Defining the Observer Role	277	(1)
Preparing for Observation	278	(1)
Determining the Focus of Observation	278	(2)
Gaining Entry into the Field Setting	280	(1)
Recording Observations	281	(2)
What Field Notes Should Include	281	(2)
Dealing with Observer Effects	283	(1)
Analyzing Qualitative Observational Data	284	(1)
Nonreactive Observation in Quantitative Research	284	(2)
Use of Unobtrusive Measures	284	(3)
Potential Limitations of Unobtrusive Measures	285	(1)
Nonreactive Observation in Qualitative Research	286	(1)
Content Analysis of Documents and Other Communication Media	287	(7)
Content Analysis in Quantitative Research	288	(3)
Steps in Content Analysis	288	(3)
Analysis of Documents and Records in Qualitative Observation	291	(3)
Recommendations for Using Observational and Content-Analysis Methods	294	(1)
Self-Check Test	295	(2)
PART IV: Quantitative Research Design	297	(148)
10. Nonexperimental Research: Descriptive and Causal-Comparative Designs	298	(33)
Introduction	299	(1)
An Example from Medical Research	299	(1)
Descriptive Research Designs	300	(6)
The Purpose of Descriptive Research	300	(1)
Measurement in Descriptive Research	301	(1)
Statistics in Descriptive Research	301	(1)
Description of a Sample at One Point in Time	302	(1)
Longitudinal Description of a Sample	302	(4)
Trend Studies	303	(1)
Cohort Studies	303	(1)
Panel Studies	304	(1)
Cross-Sectional Studies	305	(1)
Causal-Comparative Research Designs	306	(23)
The Study of Cause-and-Effect Relationships	306	(1)
Example of a Causal-Comparative Research Study	307	(4)
Planning a Causal-Comparative Study	311	(4)
Statement of the Research Problem	311	(1)
Selecting Comparison Groups	312	(2)
Data Collection	314	(1)
Data Analysis	315	(1)
Statistical Analysis: The t Test	315	(3)
The tTest for the Difference between Means	315	(2)
The tTest for a Single Mean	317	(1)
Statistical Analysis: Analysis of Variance	318	(7)
Comparison of More Than Two Means	318	(2)
Analysis of Covariance	320	(1)
Multivariate Analysis of Variance	321	(3)
Tests for the Difference between Variances	324	(1)
Statistical Analysis: Nonparametric Tests	325	(3)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Nonparametric Tests	325	(1)
The Chi-Square Test	325	(2)
Other Nonparametric Tests	327	(1)
Interpretation of Causal-Comparative Findings	328	(1)
Recommendations for Doing Descriptive and Causal-Comparative Research	329	(1)
Self-Check Test	329	(2)
11. Nonexperimental Research: Correlational Designs	331	(48)
The Nature of Correlation	332	(5)
Types of Scattergrams	332	(2)
Positive Correlation	332	(1)
Negative Correlation	333	(1)
Absence of Correlation	334	(1)
The Mathematics of Correlation	334	(1)
Correlational Research Design	335	(1)
Correlation and Causality	335	(1)
Advantages and Uses of Correlational Research	336	(1)
Planning a Causal Relationship Study	337	(4)
Basic Research Design	337	(4)
The Problem	337	(1)
Selection of Research Participants	338	(1)
Data Collection	338	(1)
Data Analysis	339	(1)
Problems of Interpretation	340	(1)
Limitations of Causal Relationship Studies	341	(1)
Planning a Prediction Study	341	(6)
Types of Prediction Studies	341	(1)
Basic Research Design	342	(4)
The Problem	342	(1)
Selection of Research Participants	343	(1)
Data Collection	343	(1)
Data Analysis	344	(2)
Statistical Factors in Prediction Research	346	(1)
Group Prediction	346	(1)
Shrinkage	346	(1)
Bivariate Correlational Statistics	347	(5)
Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient	347	(1)
Correlation Ratio	347	(3)
Adjustments to Correlation Coefficients	350	(2)
Correction for Attenuation	350	(1)
Correction for Restriction in Range	350	(1)
Part and Partial Correlation	351	(1)
Multivariate Correlational Statistics	352	(25)
Multiple Regression	353	(8)
A Research Example	353	(3)
Steps in a Multiple Regression Analysis	356	(2)
Multiple Correlation Coefficient	358	(1)
Coefficient of Determination	359	(1)
The Mathematics of Multiple Regression	359	(1)
Types of Multiple Regression	360	(1)
Cautions in Using Multiple Regression	361	(1)
Hierarchical Linear Modeling	361	(2)
Path Analysis	363	(5)
Steps in Path Analysis	364	(2)
Path Analysis Models	366	(1)
The Mathematics of Path Analysis	367	(1)
Path Analysis and Theory Testing	368	(1)
Factor Analysis	368	(3)
Factor Loadings and Factor Scores	369	(1)
Types of Factor Analysis	370	(1)
Structural Equation Modeling	371	(2)
Differential Analysis	373	(2)
Subgroup Analysis in Causal Relationship Studies	373	(1)
Moderator Variables in Prediction Studies	374	(1)
Interpretation of Correlation Coefficients	375	(4)
Statistical Significance of Correlation Coefficients	375	(1)
Interpreting the Magnitude of Correlation Coefficients	375	(2)
Recommendations for Doing Correlational Research	377	(1)
Self-Check Test	377	(2)
12. Experimental Research: Designs, Part 1	379	(36)
Introduction	379	(4)
Terminology in Experimental Design	381	(1)
Validity Problems in Experiments	381	(2)
Internal Validity of Experiments	383	(5)
External Validity of Experiments	388	(6)
Population Validity	389	(1)
Ecological Validity	390	(2)
Representative Design	392	(2)
Issues in Designing Experiments	394	(8)
Experimenter Bias	394	(1)
Treatment Fidelity	395	(1)
Strong versus Weak Experimental Treatments	396	(1)
Random Assignment in Experiments	397	(5)
Single-Group Designs	402	(2)
The One-Shot Case Study	402	(1)
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design	402	(2)
Time-Series Design	404	(1)
Control-Group Designs with Random Assignment	404	(9)
Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design	405	(4)
Posttest-Only Control-Group Design	409	(3)
One-Variable Multiple-Condition Design	412	(1)
Recommendations for Doing Experiments	413	(1)
Self-Check Test	413	(2)
13. Experimental Research: Designs, Part 2	415	(30)
Quasi-Experimental Designs	416	(2)
Static-Group Comparison Design	416	(1)
Nonequivalent Control-Group Design	416	(2)
Factorial Designs	418	(19)
Two-Factor Experiments	418	(3)
Example of a Two-Factor Experiment	418	(3)
Solomon Four-Group Design	421	(2)
Example of a Solomon Four-Group Experiment	421	(2)
Variations in Factorial Experiments	423	(3)
Three-Factor Experiments	423	(1)
Manipulability of Independent Variables	424	(1)
Fixed and Random Factors	425	(1)
Assignment of Participants to Multiple Treatments	426	(1)
Single-Case Designs	426	(1)
Example of a Single-Case Experiment	427	(3)
General Design Considerations	430	(2)
Reliable Observation	430	(1)
Repeated Measurement	431	(1)
Description of Experimental Conditions	431	(1)
Baseline and Treatment Stability	431	(1)
Length of Baseline and Treatment Phases	432	(1)
A-B-A Designs	432	(1)
A-B Design	432	(1)
A-B-A and A-B-A-B Designs	432	(1)
Multiple-Baseline Designs	433	(2)
Example of a Multiple-Baseline Experiment	433	(2)
Statistical Analysis of Single-Case Data	435	(2)
External Validity of Single-Case Designs	437	(1)
Other Experimental Designs	437	(1)
Measurement of Change	438	(5)
Gain Scores	438	(2)
Statistical Analysis of Change	440	(7)
Multiple Regression	440	(1)
Analysis of Covariance and t Tests	440	(1)
Analysis of Varience for Repeated Measures	440	(3)
Recommendations for Doing Experiments	443	(1)
Self-Check Test	443	(2)
PART V: Approaches to Qualitative Research	445	(112)
14. Case Study Research	446	(42)
Importance of Case Study in Qualitative Research	447	(6)
Characteristics of Case Studies	447	(4)
Study of Particular Instances	447	(1)
In-Depth Study of the Case	448	(1)
Study of a Phenomenon in Its Real-Life Context	449	(1)
Representation of Emic and Etic Perspectives	450	(1)
Purposes of Case Studies	451	(2)
Description	451	(1)
Explanation	452	(1)
Evaluation	453	(1)
Designing a Case Study	453	(7)
Formulating a Research Problem	455	(1)
Selecting a Case	456	(1)
Defining the Role of the Case Study Researcher	457	(1)
Gaining Entry	458	(1)
Addressing Ethical Issues	459	(1)
Collecting Case Study Data	460	(5)
Personal Involvement in the Data-Collection Process	461	(2)
Analyzing Data during Data Collection	463	(2)
Ending Data Collection	465	(1)
Analyzing Case Study Data	465	(8)
Interpretational Analysis	466	(5)
Segmenting the Database	466	(1)
Developing Categories	467	(1)
Coding Segments	468	(1)
Grouping Category Segments	468	(1)
Drawing Conclusions	469	(2)
Structural Analysis	471	(1)
Reflective Analysis	472	(1)
Ensuring the Quality and Rigor of Qualitative Research	473	(4)
Strategies to Meet Users' Needs	474	(1)
Strategies to Ensure Thorough Data Collection	474	(1)
Strategies Reflecting Sound Research Design	475	(3)
Positivist Conceptions of the Validity and Reliability of Case Study Research	476	(1)
Determining the Applicability of Case Study Findings	477	(1)
Reporting a Case Study	478	(6)
Finalizing Definition of the Case	479	(1)
Reflective Reporting	480	(2)
Analytic Reporting	482	(2)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Case Study Research	484	(1)
Recommendations for Doing Case Studies	485	(1)
Self-Check Test	486	(2)
15. Qualitative Research Traditions	488	(40)
Qualitative Research Traditions in Educational Research	489	(3)
The Characteristics of Qualitative Research Traditions	490	(2)
Traditions Involving Investigation of Lived Experience	492	(8)
Cognitive Psychology	492	(3)
A Study of Differences in the Knowledge Structures of Experts and Novices	493	(2)
Phenomenology	495	(2)
Phenomenographic Research	497	(1)
Life History Research	498	(2)
Traditions Involving Investigation of Society and Culture	500	(19)
Ethnography	500	(9)
Phenomena Studied by Ethnographers	503	(1)
Doing an Ethnographic Study	503	(5)
Issues Facing Ethnography	508	(1)
Cultural Studies and Critical-Theory Research	509	(9)
Assumptions of the Cultural Studies Tradition	509	(3)
Methods of Inquiry	512	(1)
Focus on Issues Relevant to Education	513	(1)
Theory Building in Cultural Studies	514	(3)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Cultural Studies	517	(1)
Ethnomethodology	518	(1)
Traditions Involving Investigation of Language and Communication	519	(7)
Hermeneutics	520	(2)
Semiotics	522	(1)
Structuralism and Poststructuralism	523	(3)
Recommendations for Designing a Study Based on a Qualitative Research Tradition	526	(1)
Self-Check Test	526	(2)
16. Historical Research	528	(29)
Importance of Historical Research in Education	529	(4)
Subject Matter of Historical Research	530	(1)
Impact of Historical Research on Education	530	(6)
A Subject in the Curriculum	530	(1)
A Foundation for Developing New Knowledge and Policies Related to Education	531	(1)
A Variable Affecting the Validity of Research Findings	532	(1)
A Basis for Evaluating Educational Programs	532	(1)
A Tool in Planning the Future	532	(1)
Historiography and the Stages of Historical Research	533	(1)
Defining a Problem for Historical Research	534	(2)
Studying Historical Sources	536	(3)
Formulating a Search Plan	536	(1)
Searching Preliminary Sources	536	(1)
Reading Secondary Sources	537	(1)
Studying Primary Sources	537	(2)
Recording Information from Historical Sources	539	(1)
Recording and Analyzing Quantitative Data	540	(1)
Evaluation of Historical Sources	540	(3)
External Criticism	541	(1)
Internal Criticism	542	(1)
Interpretation in Historical Research	543	(5)
Use of Concepts to Interpret Historical Information	543	(1)
Historians as Interpreters	544	(2)
Causal Inference in Historical Research	546	(1)
Generalizability of Historical Evidence	547	(1)
Writing a Historical Research Report	548	(1)
Examples of Historical Research in Education	549	(5)
A Micropolitical Perspective on the Education of Mexican Americans in a South Texas Community	549	(2)
Politics and the Pendulum: A Historical Analysis of Whole Language	551	(8)
Expanding Political Opportunities	552	(1)
Shared Cognitions	552	(1)
Mobilization of Indigent Organization Resources	552	(1)
Shifting Response of Other Organized Groups to the Movement	553	(1)
Recommendations for Doing Historical Research	554	(1)
Self-Check Test	554	(3)
PART VI: Applications of Research	557	(59)
17. Evaluation Research	558	(39)
The Role of Evaluation in Education	559	(1)
Relationship between Evaluation and Research	559	(1)
Steps in Program Evaluation	560	(9)
Clarifying the Reasons for an Evaluation	561	(1)
Selecting an Evaluation Model	561	(1)
Example of Collaborative Evaluation	562	(1)
Identifying Stakeholders	562	(1)
Deciding What Is to Be Evaluated	563	(2)
Program Goals	563	(1)
Program Resources and Procedures	563	(1)
Program Management	564	(1)
Program Outcomes	565	(1)
Identifying Evaluation Questions	565	(1)
Developing an Evaluation Design and Time Line	566	(1)
Collecting and Analyzing Evaluation Data	567	(1)
Reporting Evaluation Results	568	(1)
Criteria for Effective Evaluation Research	569	(4)
Program Evaluation Standards	569	(3)
Personnel Evaluation Standards	572	(1)
Other Standards for Educational Evaluation	572	(1)
Quantitative Approaches to Evaluation	573	(7)
Evaluation of the Individual	573	(1)
Objectives-Based Evaluation	573	(2)
Needs Assessment	575	(4)
Example of Needs Assessment	576	(2)
Limitations of Needs Assessment	578	(1)
Context—Input—Process—Product (CIPP) Evaluation	579	(1)
Qualitative Approaches to Evaluation	580	(9)
Responsive Evaluation	581	(2)
Example of Responsive Evaluation	581	(1)
Emergent Design	582	(1)
Fourth-Generation Evaluation	583	(1)
Quasi-Legal Models of Evaluation	583	(3)
Adversary Evaluation	583	(2)
Judicial Evaluation	585	(1)
Expertise-Based Evaluation	586	(2)
Educational Connoisseurship and Criticism	586	(1)
Example of Expertise-Based Evaluation	587	(1)
Empowerment Evaluation	588	(1)
Example of Empowerment Evaluation	588	(1)
Educational Research and Development	589	(5)
R&D Model	589	(1)
Formative and Summative Evaluation	590	(2)
Example of R&D Evaluation	592	(2)
Recommendations for Doing an Evaluation Research Study or an R&D Evaluation	594	(1)
Self-Check Test	595	(2)
18. Action Research	597	(19)
Characteristics of Action Research	597	(3)
Purposes for Conducting Action Research	599	(1)
Personal Purposes for Action Research	599	(1)
Professional Purposes for Action Research	599	(1)
Political Purposes for Action Research	600	(1)
Cyclical Nature of Action Research	600	(6)
Focus on Data Collection and Analysis as a Basis for Action	603	(1)
Focus on Reflection	604	(2)
Stages of Action Research	606	(3)
Selecting a Focus	606	(1)
Taking Action	607	(1)
Collecting Data	607	(1)
Analyzing and Interpreting the Data	607	(1)
Continuing or Modifying Action	607	(1)
Reflection	608	(1)
Reporting Action Research	608	(1)
Credibility and Trustworthiness of Action Research	609	(3)
Outcome Validity	610	(1)
Process Validity	610	(1)
Democratic Validity	610	(1)
Catalytic Validity	611	(1)
Dialogic Validity	611	(1)
Reducing Discrepancies between Practitioners' Espoused Theories and Theories-in-Action	612	(1)
Practitioner—Academic Collaboration	612	(1)
Ethical Issues in Action Research	613	(1)
Recommendations for Doing Action Research	614	(1)
Self-Check Test	614	(2)
Self-Check Test Answers	616	(2)
APPENDIX A Questions for Evaluating Quantitative Research Reports	618	(4)
APPENDIX B Questions for Evaluating Qualitative Research Reports	622	(4)
APPENDIX C Preliminary and Secondary Sources: Tests and Self-Report Measures	626	(3)
APPENDIX D Preliminary and Secondary Sources on the History of Education	629	(3)
Glossary	632	(27)
Author Index	659	(7)
Subject Index	666