Effects of Pollution on Fish Molecular Effects and Population Responses

by Lawrence, Andrew J.; Hemingway, Krystal L.

• ISBN13: 9780632064069
• ISBN10: 0632064064
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-08-15
• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell

Summary

The impact of pollution on fisheries and the potential health implications of eating contaminated fish are areas of considerable concern for the fishing and aquaculture communities, government bodies and the general public. Pollution, as well as over fishing, may well be contributory to recent serious declines in global fish stocks.Effects of Pollution on Fish brings together the work of many international experts each of whom have examined the literature on marine and freshwater fish and, where appropriate, invertebrates, to produce comprehensive chapters covering all major aspects of the impacts of pollution on fish and fisheries. The book describes these impacts in detail, from the molecular and sub-cellular level, through organism to population and community levels, and subsequently to socio-economic implications.The editors of this thorough and timely book have drawn together contributions encompassing molecular genetics, biochemistry, physiology, population and community biology, and fishery economics. As such, this important book will be of great use and interest to students and professionals studying and teaching in all those subject areas. Fish biologists, environmental scientists and ecotoxicologists, marine and freshwater ecologists, fisheries managers, aquaculture personnel and fish farmers, as well as fish veterinarians will all find much of great value within this book. Libraries in universities and research establishments concerned with these areas should all have copies of this book on their shelves.

Author Biography

Andrew Lawrence is at the Department of Biological Sciences, and Krystal Hemingway is at the Institute of Estuarine and Coastal Studies (IECS), both at the University of Hull, UK.

Table of Contents

List of Contributors	xiii
Preface	xv
Acknowledgements	xviii
1 Introduction and Conceptual Model	1	(13)
1.1 Background	1	(3)
1.2 Aims and objectives	4	(1)
1.3 Contaminant, environmental and life history stage factors	5	(4)
1.3.1 Contaminants	5	(2)
1.3.1.1 Halogenated hydrocarbons	5	(1)
1.3.1.2 Non-halogenated hydrocarbons	6	(1)
1.3.1.3 Organometals	6	(1)
1.3.1.4 Non-organic metals	6	(1)
1.3.2 Life-stage interactions	7	(1)
1.3.3 Environmental factors	7	(1)
1.3.4 Summary	7	(2)
1.4 Overview of the conceptual model	9	(2)
1.5 Conclusions	11	(1)
1.6 References	12	(2)
2 Genetic Damage and the Molecular/Cellular Response to Pollution	14	(69)
2.1 Damage to DNA by oxygen radicals	14	(23)
2.1.1 Contaminants	14	(1)
2.1.2 Production mechanisms	15	(7)
2.1.2.1 General aspects	15	(2)
2.1.2.2 Induction of cytochrome P450 system	17	(1)
2.1.2.3 Peroxisome proliferation	17	(4)
2.1.2.4 Markers of oxyradical production	21	(1)
2.1.3 Protection mechanisms	22	(9)
2.1.3.1 Induction of antioxidant enzymes	22	(3)
2.1.3.2 Oxyradical scavengers	25	(1)
2.1.3.3 Glutathione status	25	(1)
2.1.3.4 Induction of metallothioneins	26	(1)
2.1.3.5 Induction of stress proteins	27	(1)
2.1.3.6 Lysosomal sequestration	28	(3)
2.1.3.7 Markers of cell protection against oxyradicals	31	(1)
2.1.4 Damage	31	(3)
2.1.4.1 Oxidative DNA damage	32	(1)
2.1.4.2 Lipid peroxidation	32	(1)
2.1.4.3 Alterations in protein function	33	(1)
2.1.4.4 Markers of oxyradical-mediated cell injury	34	(1)
2.1.5 Consequences of damage	34	(3)
2.1.5.1 Tumour formation	35	(1)
2.1.5.2 Other oxyradical-mediated diseases	36	(1)
2.2 Direct damage to DNA by mutagenic chemicals and radiation	37	(11)
2.2.1 Adducts	37	(3)
2.2.1.1 Contaminants and production mechanisms	37	(1)
2.2.1.2 Protection mechanisms	38	(1)
2.2.1.3 Determination of adduct formation	39	(1)
2.2.1.4 Consequences of damage	39	(1)
2.2.2 Mutations	40	(6)
2.2.2.1 Contaminants	41	(1)
2.2.2.2 Production mechanisms	42	(1)
2.2.2.3 Detection of mutations	43	(3)
2.2.2.4 Consequences of damage	46	(1)
2.2.3 Repair mechanisms	46	(2)
2.3 Direct chemical effects on chromosomes	48	(12)
2.3.1 Contaminants and production mechanisms	48	(2)
2.3.2 Protection mechanisms	50	(1)
2.3.3 Consequences of damage	51	(5)
2.3.3.1 Sister chromatid exchange	51	(1)
2.3.3.2 Chromosomal aberrations	52	(1)
2.3.3.3 Micronucleae production	53	(3)
2.3.4 Detection of chromosome damage	56	(4)
2.3.4.1 Sister chromatid exchange	56	(1)
2.3.4.2 Chromosomal aberrations	57	(1)
2.3.4.3 Micronuclei production	58	(2)
2.4 Higher level consequences of genetic damage	60	(2)
2.4.1 Germ line effects	60	(1)
2.4.2 Somatic effects	60	(1)
2.4.3 Developmental effects	61	(1)
2.5 Conclusions	62	(1)
2.6 Acknowledgements	62	(1)
2.7 References	62	(21)
3 Molecular/Cellular Processes and the Physiological Response to Pollution	83	(51)
3.1 Induction of specific proteins	83	(4)
3.1.1 Phase I and II detoxification enzymes	83	(2)
3.1.2 Multidrug resistance protein	85	(1)
3.1.3 Stress proteins/chaperonins, metallothioneins	86	(1)
3.1.4 Antioxidant enzymes	87	(1)
3.2 Protein degradation	87	(3)
3.2.1 Direct effects on protein catabolism	87	(1)
3.2.2 Radical damage to proteins and production of protein adducts	88	(1)
3.2.3 Lysosomal damage in relation to protein turnover	88	(1)
3.2.4 Stress pigment formation	89	(1)
3.2.5 Cellular pathology and repair processes	90	(1)
3.2.5.1 Cell injury and carcinogenesis	90	(1)
3.3 Physiological effects: whole body responses/regulation	90	(27)
3.3.1 Energetics and energy budgets	90	(4)
3.3.1.1 Scope for growth	91	(1)
3.3.1.2 Adenylate energy charge	92	(1)
3.3.1.3 Cellular energy allocation	93	(1)
3.3.2 Osmoregulation and ionoregulation	94	(2)
3.3.2.1 Ionoregulation	94	(1)
3.3.2.2 Osmoregulation	95	(1)
3.3.2.3 Excretion/respiration	95	(1)
3.3.3 Effects on growth	96	(3)
3.3.3.1 Genotypic dependant effects	96	(1)
3.3.3.2 Optimal strategies (age/size trade-offs)	97	(2)
3.3.3.3 Growth impacts	99	(1)
3.3.3.4 Condition indices	99	(1)
3.3.4 Impact on developmental processes	99	(1)
3.3.4.1 Skeletal calcification	99	(1)
3.3.4.2 Muscle development	100	(1)
3.3.5 Nutrition	100	(1)
3.3.6 Neuroendocrine and immune responses	100	(2)
3.3.7 Impact on neurosensory physiology	102	(1)
3.3.8 Rhythmicity	103	(1)
3.3.9 Lysosome damage and reduced immune competence	104	(1)
3.3.10 Effects on reproduction	105	(9)
3.3.10.1 Reduced energy for reproduction	105	(1)
3.3.10.2 Induced or reduced vitellogenesis and zonagenesis	106	(1)
3.3.10.3 Impacts on fecundity	107	(3)
3.3.10.4 Fertilisation impairment	110	(1)
3.3.10.5 Embryonic and larval abnormalities and genotoxic damage during gametogenesis	111	(3)
3.3.11 Behavioural responses	114	(2)
3.3.11.1 Locomotion	114	(1)
3.3.11.2 Escape	115	(1)
3.3.11.3 Foraging models	115	(1)
3.3.11.4 Reproductive behaviour	115	(1)
3.3.11.5 Consequences of behavioural change	115	(1)
3.3.12 Conclusions	116	(1)
3.4 References	117	(17)
4 Molecular/Cellular Processes and the Health of the Individual	134	(45)
4.1 Introduction	134	(1)
4.2 Physiological aberrations	135	(10)
4.2.1 Effects on the immune system	136	(3)
4.2.1.1 The non-specific components of the fish immune system	136	(1)
4.2.1.2 The specific components of the fish immune system	136	(1)
4.2.1.3 Methods to study fish immune responses to xenobiotics	137	(1)
4.2.1.4 Natural modulation of the fish immune system	137	(1)
4.2.1.5 Effects of contaminants on non-specific immune responses	137	(1)
4.2.1.6 Effects of contaminants on specific immune responses	138	(1)
4.2.1.7 The use of immune responses in fish for contaminant monitoring	139	(1)
4.2.2 Perturbed metabolism of vitamins, trace elements, etc.	139	(2)
4.2.2.1 Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)	139	(1)
4.2.2.2 Trace metal metabolism (Cu, Zn, Fe)	140	(1)
4.2.3 Organ dysfunction	141	(4)
4.2.3.1 Gills	141	(1)
4.2.3.2 Sensory epithelia	141	(1)
4.2.3.3 Liver and other visceral organs	142	(1)
4.2.3.4 Endocrine organs	143	(1)
4.2.3.5 Blood	144	(1)
4.2.3.6 Nervous tissue	145	(1)
4.3 Pathological abnormalities	145	(8)
4.3.1 Integument	146	(1)
4.3.2 Gills	147	(1)
4.3.3 Sensory epithelia	148	(1)
4.3.4 Visceral organs	149	(2)
4.3.4.1 Liver	149	(1)
4.3.4.2 Spleen	150	(1)
4.3.4.3 Kidney	151	(1)
4.3.5 Skeletal muscle	151	(1)
4.3.6 The skeleton	151	(1)
4.3.7 Endocrine organs	151	(1)
4.3.8 Nervous tissue	152	(1)
4.3.9 Gastro-intestinal tract	152	(1)
4.3.10 Gonads	152	(1)
4.3.11 Eyes	152	(1)
4.4 Larval and embryological development	153	(3)
4.4.1 Early development in fish	153	(1)
4.4.2 Methods	154	(1)
4.4.3 Mechanisms	154	(1)
4.4.4 Experimental studies	155	(1)
4.4.5 Field studies	155	(1)
4.4.6 Links between cellular effects and larval development	156	(1)
4.5 Case studies	156	(5)
4.5.1 Pulp mill effluent	157	(2)
4.5.2 The M74 syndrome	159	(20)
4.5.2.1 The Baltic salmon	159	(1)
4.5.2.2 A history of the M74 syndrome	160	(1)
4.5.2.3 Possible causes for M74	160	(1)
4.6 Conclusions	161	(1)
4.7 References	162	(17)
5 Molecular/Cellular Processes and the Impact on Reproduction	179	(42)
5.1 Endocrine disruption	179	(23)
5.1.1 General aspects	179	(1)
5.1.2 Oestrogenic and antioestrogenic effects	179	(11)
5.1.2.1 Mechanisms	180	(3)
5.1.2.2 Contaminants	183	(4)
5.1.2.3 Immediate consequences	187	(3)
5.1.3 Androgenic and antiandrogenic effects	190	(2)
5.1.3.1 Mechanisms	191	(1)
5.1.3.2 Contaminants	191	(1)
5.1.3.3 Immediate consequences	191	(1)
5.1.4 Effects on hormone synthesis, metabolism and regulation	192	(5)
5.1.4.1 Mechanisms	192	(3)
5.1.4.2 Contaminants	195	(1)
5.1.4.3 Immediate consequences	196	(1)
5.1.5 Methodology	197	(5)
5.2 Other types of reproductive interferences	202	(2)
5.2.1 Protein/membrane damage in gonads	202	(1)
5.2.2 Spermatotoxic effects	203	(1)
5.2.3 Effects of peroxisome proliferators on reproduction	203	(1)
5.3 Higher level consequences of reproductive damage	204	(4)
5.3.1 Altered sex ratios	204	(1)
5.3.2 Intersex	204	(1)
5.3.3 Life cycle strategies	205	(1)
5.3.4 Reduced recruitment	206	(1)
5.3.5 Reproductive behaviour	207	(1)
5.4 References	208	(13)
6 From the Individual to the Population and Community Responses to Pollution	221	(35)
6.1 Introduction	221	(3)
6.2 Changes manifested in individuals	224	(7)
6.2.1 Bioaccumulation of contaminants in fish	226	(3)
6.2.2 Link 1: Individual health to condition and growth	229	(2)
6.2.3 Link 2: Individual health to production and yield	231	(1)
6.3 Changes manifested in populations	231	(11)
6.3.1 Reproductive success of individual affected by pollutants (linking to reproductive capacity of population)	231	(5)
6.3.2 Population models (e.g. Leslie matrix model)	236	(1)
6.3.3 Reproductive capacity, survival, mortality to production and yield	237	(5)
6.3.3.1 Response-patterns of populations to reduced reproductive capacity	237	(2)
6.3.3.2 Links between reproductive capacity, mortality rate, year-class strength and recruitment	239	(2)
6.3.3.3 Effects of changes in population structure on production, yield and the quantity of populations	241	(1)
6.4 Changes manifested in community response	242	(7)
6.4.1 Effects on competition and behaviour	243	(4)
6.4.2 Effects on mixed fishery - socio-economic changes	247	(2)
6.5 References	249	(7)
7 Molecular/Cellular Processes and the Population Genetics of a Species	256	(33)
7.1 Introduction	256	(1)
7.2 Evolutionary processes and concepts	257	(11)
7.2.1 Mutations	257	(1)
7.2.2 Gene flow	258	(1)
7.2.3 Selection	259	(2)
7.2.4 Random genetic drift	261	(3)
7.2.5 Inbreeding	264	(1)
7.2.6 Effective population size (Ne)	265	(1)
7.2.7 The importance of genetic diversity	266	(2)
7.3 Impacts and their consequences	268	(2)
7.3.1 Sublethal molecular and cellular response and the potential for selection	268	(2)
7.3.2 Differential mortality and fitness effects	270	(1)
7.4 The evolution of tolerance	270	(10)
7.4.1 Intrapopulation diversity	271	(1)
7.4.2 Interpopulation differentiation	272	(4)
7.4.3 The speed of adaptation	276	(1)
7.4.4 The costs of adaptation	277	(2)
7.4.5 The identification of tolerance genes	279	(1)
7.5 References	280	(9)
8 From Population Ecology to Socio-Economic and Human Health Issues	289	(30)
8.1 Introduction	289	(4)
8.1.1 Aims and objectives	289	(1)
8.1.2 The bio-socio-economic model	290	(3)
8.2 The fish sector of the European Union	293	(6)
8.2.1 Introduction	293	(1)
8.2.2 The Common Fisheries Policy (CFP)	294	(1)
8.2.3 The crisis in EU fisheries: interdependence or independence in relation to xenobiotic influences?	295	(4)
8.3 The quality of individual fish (intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics), scarcity and its effects on consumer health and behaviour	299	(3)
8.3.1 Intrinsic quality in fish	299	(1)
8.3.2 Extrinsic quality in fish	300	(1)
8.3.3 The fish trade and quality	301	(1)
8.4 Xenobiotic influences on fish quality	302	(4)
8.4.1 Ciguatoxin and red tides	304	(1)
8.4.2 Organochlorine pesticides	305	(1)
8.4.3 Heavy metals	305	(1)
8.4.4 The effects of hydrocarbons	306	(1)
8.5 Case studies	306	(6)
8.5.1 Oil spills	306	(5)
8.5.1.1 The Exxon Valdez oil spill	306	(1)
8.5.1.2 The Braer oil spill	307	(3)
8.5.1.3 The Sea Empress oil spill	310	(1)
8.5.2 Claims and compensations	311	(1)
8.6 Conclusions	312	(2)
8.7 References	314	(5)
9 The Role of Modelling in Fish and Fishery Ecotoxicology	319	(18)
9.1 Introduction	319	(1)
9.2 Summary of the effects of pollution on fish	320	(3)
9.2.1 Cellular and molecular responses	320	(1)
9.2.2 Damage to DNA	320	(1)
9.2.3 Physiological responses	321	(1)
9.2.4 Immune system responses	321	(1)
9.2.5 Reproductive system responses	321	(1)
9.2.6 Population responses	322	(1)
9.2.7 Population genetic responses	323	(1)
9.2.8 Socio-economic response	323	(1)
9.3 The role of modelling of pollution impacts on fish and fisheries	323	(7)
9.3.1 Individual-based models	324	(1)
9.3.2 Population-based models	325	(2)
9.3.3 Ecosystem-based models	327	(1)
9.3.4 New bioeconomic models incorporating sublethal pollution impacts	328	(1)
9.3.5 The validity of modelling	329	(1)
9.4 Gaps in current understanding	330	(3)
9.4.1 Molecular and cellular response and genotoxicity	330	(1)
9.4.2 Molecular and cellular response and physiological processes	331	(1)
9.4.3 Molecular and cellular response and immune effects	331	(1)
9.4.4 Molecular and cellular response and reproduction	331	(1)
9.4.5 Population responses	332	(1)
9.4.6 Population genetic responses	332	(1)
9.4.7 Socio-economic impact	333	(1)
9.5 Summary	333	(1)
9.6 References	334	(3)
Index	337