Electrical and Electronic Devices, Circuits, and Materials Technological Challenges and Solutions

by Tripathi, Suman Lata; Alvi, Parvej Ahmad; Subramaniam, Umashankar

• ISBN13: 9781119750369
• ISBN10: 1119750369
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2021-04-13
• Publisher: Wiley-Scrivener

Summary

The increasing demand for electronic devices for private and industrial purposes lead designers and researchers to explore new electronic devices and circuits that can perform several tasks efficiently with low IC area and low power consumption. In addition, the increasing demand for portable devices intensifies the call from industry to design sensor elements, an efficient storage cell, and large capacity memory elements. Several industry-related issues have also forced a redesign of basic electronic components for certain specific applications. The researchers, designers, and students working in the area of electronic devices, circuits, and materials sometimesneed standard examples with certain specifications. This breakthrough work presents this knowledge of standard electronic device and circuit design analysis, including advanced technologies and materials.

This outstanding new volume presents the basic concepts and fundamentals behind devices, circuits, and systems. It is a valuable reference for the veteran engineer and a learning tool for the student, the practicing engineer, or an engineer from another field crossing over into electrical engineering.  It is a must-have for any library.

Author Biography

Suman Lata Tripathi, PhD, is a professor at Lovely Professional University with more than seventeen years of experience in academics. She has published more than 45 research papers in refereed journals and conferences. She has organized several workshops, summer internships, and expert lectures for students, and she has worked as a session chair, conference steering committee member, editorial board member, and reviewer for IEEE journals and conferences. She has published one edited book and currently has multiple volumes scheduled for publication, including volumes available from Wiley-Scrivener.

Parvej Ahmad Alvi, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Physics at Banasthali University, Rajasthan, India. He has more than 14 years of teaching and research experience in the area of modern physics, semiconductor physics, and nanotechnology. He has worked as an editorial board member and reviewer on several journals and conferences and has published more than 100 research papers in refereed international journals and conferences. He also has six books to his credit.

Umashankar Subramaniam, PhD, is an associate professor at the Renewable Energy Lab, College of Engineering, Prince Sultan University, Saudi Arabia. He has over 15 years of teaching, research and industrial experience. He is an Associate Editor at the journal, IEEE Access, and is an editor on the journal, Heliyon, along with other jorunals. He has published more than 250 research papers in academic journals and conferences and has also contributed to over a dozen books.

Table of Contents

Preface xvii

Part I Design and Analysis 1

1 Strain Engineering in Modern Field Effect Transistors 3
Kunal Sinha

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Theory of Strain Technology 4

1.2.1 Stress and Strain 4

1.2.2 Stress Matrix for Biaxial and Uniaxial Stress 6

1.2.3 Impact of Strain on MOSFET Parameters 8

1.3 Simulation Studies in Strain Technology 9

1.4 Experimental Studies on Strain Technology 12

1.5 Summary and Future Scope 14

Future Scope 15

Acknowledgement 15

References 15

2 Design and Optimization of Heterostructure Double Gate Tunneling Field Effect Transistor for Ultra Low Power Circuit and System 19
Guenifi Naima and Shiromani Balmukund Rahi

2.1 Introduction 19

2.2 Fundamental of Device Physics 20

2.2.1 Basic Working Principles of TFET 20

2.2.2 Kane’s Model 21

2.3 Analysis Approach and Device Parameters 21

2.4 Switching Behavior of TFET 23

2.5 Results and Discussion 24

2.6 Conclusion 34

Acknowledgement 35

References 35

3 Polymer Electrolytes: Development and Supercapacitor Application 37
Anil Arya, Anurag Gaur and A. L. Sharma

3.1 Introduction 37

3.1.1 The Basic Principle and Types of Supercapacitors 38

3.1.2 Key Characteristics of the Electrolyte 40

3.1.3 Polymer Electrolytes and Types 43

3.1.4 Modification Strategies for Polymer Electrolytes 46

3.2 Preparation and Characterization Techniques 47

3.3 Latest Developments 51

3.4 Summary 62

References 62

4 Tunable RF/Microwave Filter with Fractal DGS 67
Mehul Thakkar, Pravin R. Prajapati and Hitesh Shah

4.1 Introduction 67

4.2 Literature Review 70

4.2.1 Planar Reconfigurable Filters 70

4.3 Proposed Work 71

4.3.1 Design of Hairpin Bandpass Filter 71

4.3.2 Design of Hairpin Bandpass Filter with Fractal DGS 72

4.3.3 Design of Tunable Hairpin Bandpass Filter with Fractal DGS 76

4.4 Conclusion 80

Acknowledgement 80

References 80

5 GaN High Electron Mobility Transistor Device Technology for RF and High-Power Applications 83
A. B. Khan

5.1 Introduction 83

5.2 HEMT Structures 85

5.2.1 GaAs-Based HEMTs 85

5.2.2 InP-Based HEMTs 85

5.2.3 GaN-Based HEMTs 86

5.3 Polarization Impact and Creation of 2DEG in GaN HEMT 88

5.3.1 Polarization Effect 88

5.3.2 Formation of 2DEG 90

5.4 GaN-Based HEMT Performance Affecting Factors 92

5.4.1 Surface Passivation 92

5.4.2 Parasitic Effects 93

5.4.3 Field Plate Engineering Technique 94

5.4.4 Impact of Barrier Layer 95

5.5 Conclusion 95

References 96

6 Design and Analyses of a Food Protein Sensing System Based on Memristive Properties 101
Rupam Goswami, Arighna Deb, Rithik Dilip Rathi and Prateek Mahajan

6.1 Introduction 101

6.2 Background 103

6.2.1 Principle of a Memristor 103

6.2.2 Bio-Memristors 103

6.2.3 Applications of Memristors 104

6.3 Motivation 105

6.4 Experimental Set-Up 105

6.5 Experimental Methodology and Preliminary Validation 106

6.5.1 Experimental Methodology 106

6.5.1.1 Food Items 106

6.5.1.2 Reading Voltage and Current Values 107

6.5.2 Preliminary Validation 107

6.6 Sensitivity Parameters 108

6.6.1 Resistance-Based Sensitivity (S_r) 108

6.6.2 Point Slope-Based Sensitivity (S_m) 108

6.6.3 Hysteresis-Line Slope Sensitivity 109

6.7 Results and Discussion 110

6.7.1 Category I: Egg Albumin and Milk 110

6.7.2 Category II: Protein Blend 113

6.8 Conclusions and Prospects 114

References 115

7 Design of Low-Power DRAM Cell Using Advanced FET Architectures 119
A. Durgesh and Suman Lata Tripathi

7.1 Introduction 119

7.2 1T-DRAM (MOS) 120

7.3 1T-DRAM (CNT-FET) 123

7.4 1T-DRAM (FinFET) 124

7.5 1-T DRAM (TFET) 128

7.6 Conclusion 130

References 131

8 Application of Microwave Radiation in Determination of Quality Sensing of Agricultural Products 133
Dr. Ravika Vijay, Dr. Nidhi Bhargava and Prof. K. S. Sharma

8.1 Microwave Heating and its Applications to Agricultural Products 133

8.1.1 Principle of Microwave Heating 133

8.1.2 Moisture Sensing 135

8.1.3 Promoting Germination 136

8.1.4 Food Processing 136

8.1.5 Weeds, Insects and Pests Control 136

8.1.6 Product Conditioning 136

8.1.7 Microwave Drying 137

8.1.8 Quality Sensing in Fruits and Vegetables 137

8.2 Measurement Techniques 137

8.2.1 Open-Ended Coaxial Probe – Network Analyzer Technique 138

8.2.2 Network Analyzer 139

8.3 Dielectric Spectroscopy of Agricultural Products at Different Temperatures 140

8.4 Correlation of Dielectric Properties with Nutrients 148

8.5 Conclusion 151

References 151

9 Solar Cell 155
Dr. Arvind Dhingra

Introduction 155

9.1 History of Solar Cell 155

9.2 Constructional Features of Solar Cell 158

9.3 Criteria for Materials to Be Used in Manufacturing of Solar Cell 158

9.4 Types of Solar Cells 159

9.5 Process of Making Crystals for Solar Cell Manufacturing 160

9.6 Glass 161

9.7 Cell Combinations 161

9.7.1 Series Combination of Solar Cells 161

9.7.2 Parallel Combination of Solar Cells 162

9.7.3 Series-Parallel Combination of Solar Cells 163

9.8 Solar Panels 164

9.9 Working of Solar Cell 165

9.10 Solar Cell Efficiency 166

9.11 Uses/Applications of Solar Cells 166

Conclusion 167

References 167

10 Fabrication of Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide (Cu(In,Ga)Se₂) Thin Film Solar Cell 169
Jaymin Ray, Keyur Patel, Gopal Bhatt, Priya Suryavanshi and C. J. Panchal

10.1 Introduction 169

10.2 Device Structure of CIGS Thin Film Solar Cell 170

10.3 Fabrication and Characterization of CIGS Thin Film Solar Cell 171

10.3.1 Effect of Thermally Evaporated CdS Film Thickness on the Operation of CIGS Solar Cell 174

10.3.2 Effect of Heat Soaks on CIGS/CdS Hetero-Junction 175

10.3.3 Effect of Flash Evaporated CdS Film Thickness on the Performance of CIGS Solar Cell 176

10.3.4 Effect of i-ZnO Film Thickness on the Performance of CIGS Solar Cell 179

10.4 Conclusion 186

References 186

11 Parameter Estimation of Solar Cells: A Multi-Objective Approach 189
Saumyadip Hazra and Souvik Ganguli

11.1 Introduction 189

11.2 Problem Statement 191

11.2.1 SDM 192

11.2.2 DDM 194

11.3 Methodology 196

11.4 Results and Discussions 197

11.4.1 Results for the Single-Diode Model 198

11.4.2 Results for Double-Diode Model 203

11.5 Conclusions 208

References 209

12 An IoT-Based Smart Monitoring Scheme for Solar PV Applications 211
Senthil Kumar Ramu, Gerald Christopher Raj Irudayaraj and Rajarajan Elango

12.1 Introduction 211

12.2 Solar PV Systems 213

12.2.1 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems 213

12.2.1.1 Stand-Alone PV Modules 214

12.2.1.2 Grid-Connected PV Systems 214

12.2.2 Concentrates Solar Power (CSP) 214

12.2.3 Solar Water Heater Systems 215

12.2.4 Passive Solar Design 216

12.2.5 Solar Microgrid System 216

12.2.5.1 PV Module 217

12.2.6 Battery 217

12.2.6.1 Flooded Lead Acid Battery 218

12.2.6.2 VRLA Battery 219

12.2.6.3 Lithium-Ion Battery 219

12.2.7 MPPT 219

12.2.8 Inverters & Other Electronic Equipment 219

12.2.9 Charge Controller 220

12.2.10 Additional Systems Equipment 220

12.3 IoT 220

12.3.1 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning 221

12.3.1.1 Hardware 221

12.3.1.2 Middleware 221

12.3.1.3 Cloud 221

12.3.2 Big Data and Cloud Computing 221

12.3.3 Smart Sensors 221

12.3.3.1 Temperature Sensor 221

12.3.3.2 Humidity Sensor 222

12.3.3.3 Tilt Sensor 223

12.3.3.4 CO₂ Sensor 223

12.3.3.5 Voltage and Current Sensor 223

12.3.3.6 Light Sensor 223

12.3.3.7 MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems) Sensor 223

12.3.3.8 Ultrasonic Sensor 223

12.3.3.9 IR Sensor 224

12.3.3.10 Proximity Sensor 224

12.3.4 Additional Devices for Control and Communication 224

12.3.4.1 Arduino 224

12.3.4.2 Raspberry Pi 224

12.3.4.3 GSM Module 225

12.3.5 Renewable Energy and IoT in Energy Sector 225

12.3.6 Application of IoT 226

12.3.6.1 Application to Renewable Energy Systems 226

12.3.6.2 Application to Grid Management 227

12.4 Remote Monitoring Methods of Solar PV System 228

12.4.1 Wireless Monitoring 228

12.4.2 Physical/Wired Monitoring 228

12.4.3 SCADA Monitoring 228

12.4.4 Monitoring Using Cloud Computing 228

12.4.5 Monitoring Using IOT 228

12.4.5.1 IoT-Based Remote Monitoring 229

12.5 Challenges and Issues of Implementation of IoT on Renewable Energy Resources 230

12.5.1 Challenges 230

12.5.2 Solutions 231

12.6 Conclusion 231

References 231

13 Design of Low-Power Energy Harvesting System for Biomedical Devices 235
Dr. R. Seyezhai and S. Maheswari

13.1 Introduction 235

13.2 Investigation on Topologies of DC-DC Converter 236

13.2.1 Hybrid Source Architecture Based on Synchronous Boost Converter 236

13.2.2 Hybrid Source Architecture Using Single-Inductor Dual-Input Single-Output Converter 237

13.2.3 Hybrid Source Architecture Employing a Multi-Input DC Chopper 239

13.3 Hardware Results 246

13.4 Conclusion 247

References 247

14 Performance Analysis of Some New Hybrid Metaheuristic Algorithms for High-Dimensional Optimization Problems 251
Souvik Ganguli, Gagandeep Kaur and Prasanta Sarkar

14.1 Introduction 251

14.2 An Overview of Proposed Hybrid Methodologies 253

14.3 Experimental Results and Discussion 256

14.4 Conclusions 282

References 283

15 Investigation of Structural, Optical and Wettability Properties of Cadmium Sulphide Thin Films Synthesized by Environment Friendly SILAR Technique 285
Sampat G. Deshmukh, Rohan S. Deshmukh and Vipul Kheraj

15.1 Introduction 285

15.2 Experimental Details 286

15.3 Results and Discussion 288

15.3.1 Film Formation Mechanism 288

15.3.2 Thickness Measurement 289

15.3.3 Structural Studies 289

15.3.4 Raman Spectroscopy 292

15.3.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy 293

15.3.6 Optical Studies 294

15.3.7 Wettability Studies 295

15.4 Conclusion 296

15.5 Acknowledgement 296

References 296

Part II Design, Implementation and Applications 299

16 Solar Photovoltaic Cells 301
V. Mohanapriya and V. Manimegalai

16.1 Introduction 301

16.2 Need for Solar Cells 302

16.3 Structure of Solar Cell 302

16.4 Solar Cell Classification 303

16.4.1 First-Generation Solar Cells 303

16.4.2 Second-Generation Solar Cells 304

16.4.3 Third-Generation Solar Cells 304

16.5 Solar PV Cells 305

16.6 Solar Cell Working 306

16.7 Mathematical Modelling of Solar Cell 306

16.8 Solar Cell Connection Methods 309

16.9 Types of Solar PV System 311

16.10 Conclusion 313

References 313

17 An Intelligent Computing Technique for Parameter Extraction of Different Photovoltaic (PV) Models 315
Shilpy Goyal, Parag Nijhawan and Souvik Ganguli

17.1 Introduction 315

17.2 Problem Formulation 317

17.2.1 Single-Diode Model 317

17.2.2 Double-Diode Model 319

17.2.3 Three-Diode Model 320

17.3 Proposed Optimization Technique 322

17.3.1 Various Phases of Optimization of Harris Hawks 323

17.3.1.1 Exploration Phase 323

17.3.1.2 Turning from Global to Local Search 324

17.3.1.3 Exploitation Phase 324

17.4 Results and Discussions 324

17.5 Conclusions 339

References 339

18 Experimental Investigation on Wi-Fi Signal Loss by Scattering Property of Duranta Plant Leaves 341
Khalid Ali Khan, Syed Gulraze Anjum, M. Nasim Faruque and Dinkisa Dechasa Geyesa

18.1 Introduction 341

18.1.1 Duranta Golden Plant 342

18.1.2 Foliage Loss 343

18.2 Measurement and Calculation 343

18.2.1 Scattering Feasibility 346

18.2.2 Comparison with Tree Shadowing Effect 347

18.3 Result and Discussion 347

18.4 Conclusions 348

References 348

19 Multi-Quantum Well-Based Solar Cell 351
Ashish Raman, Chetan Chaturvedi and Naveen Kumar

19.1 Introduction 351

19.2 Theoretical Aspects of Solar Cell 353

19.3 Device Design and Simulation Setup 354

19.4 Results and Discussion 356

19.4.1 GaSb/GaAs MQWs Solar Cell 356

19.4.2 InGaP/GaAs MQW Solar Cell 358

19.4.3 InP/GaAs MQW Solar Cell 360

19.4.4 AlGaAs/GaAs MQW Solar Cell 361

19.4.5 Optimization 363

19.5 Comparative Analysis 367

19.6 Conclusion 370

References 370

20 Mitigation Techniques for Removal of Dust on Solar Photovoltaic System 373
Pandiyan P, Saravanan S, Chinnadurai T, Ramji Tiwari, Prabaharan N and Umashankar S

20.1 Introduction 373

20.2 Influencing Factors for Deposition of Dust 375

20.2.1 Ecological Factors 375

20.2.1.1 Direction of Wind and its Velocity 375

20.2.1.2 Temperature and Moisture 376

20.2.1.3 Humidity 377

20.2.1.4 Rainfall 377

20.2.1.5 Dust Properties 377

20.2.1.6 Bird Droppings 378

20.2.2 Factors Influencing Installation 378

20.2.2.1 Orientation and Tilt Angle 378

20.2.2.2 Height 378

20.2.2.3 Top Surface of the Solar Panels 378

20.2.3 Installed Location and Exposure Time 379

20.3 Effects of Deposition of Dust on the Solar Panels 379

20.3.1 Influence of Electrical Characteristics 379

20.3.2 Influence of the Optical Characteristics 380

20.3.3 Influence of the Thermal Characteristic 381

20.4 Methods of Cleaning System 381

20.4.1 Natural Cleaning Method 384

20.4.2 Manual Cleaning Method 384

20.4.3 Self-Cleaning Method 385

20.4.3.1 Active Cleaning 385

20.4.3.2 Passive Cleaning 388

20.5 Conclusion 389

References 389

21 Solid-State Air-Conditioning System Using Photovoltaic Module 393
Dr. Y. Thiagarajan, S. Karthikeyan, K. Santhosh, M. Keerthana and Gabriel Gomes de Oliveira

21.1 Introduction 393

21.1.1 Thermoelectric Cooler (TEC) 394

21.2 Fabrication of the Solid State Air-Conditioning System 395

21.2.1 Description of the Proposed Model 395

21.2.2 Peltier Effect 395

21.2.3 Comparison Between the Existing Framework and Proposed System 396

21.3 Hardware Implementation 396

21.3.1 8051 Architecture 396

21.3.2 Microcontroller PCB 397

21.3.3 Photovoltaic Module 397

21.3.4 Solar Radiation 397

21.3.5 Battery 398

21.3.6 Relay 399

21.3.7 5×1 Keypad 400

21.3.8 Peltier Sensor 400

21.3.9 Solenoid Valve 400

21.4 Software Analysis 400

21.4.1 KEIL Compiler 401

21.4.2 Gathering with Cx51 401

21.4.3 Running Cx51 from the Command Prompt 401

21.4.4 Program for AT89S52 402

21.4.4.1 Solar Coding 402

21.4.4.2 Peltier Coding 406

21.5 Conclusion 409

References 409

22 Cu₂ZnSnS₄ Thin Film Solar Cell: Fabrication and Characterization 411
Kinjal Patel, Neelkanth G. Dhere, Vipul Kheraj and Dimple Shah

22.1 Introduction 411

22.1.1 Solar Photovoltaics: A Key to Energy Elucidation 412

22.1.2 Thin Film Solar Cells 413

22.1.3 CZTS Solar Cells 414

22.2 Fabrication of Cu₂ZnSnS₄ Thin Film Solar Cell 415

22.2.1 Glass Cleaning 416

22.2.2 Molybdenum Deposition 417

22.2.3 CZTS Thin Film Coating 417

22.2.4 CdS Deposition 417

22.2.5 ZnO and Al-ZnO Coating 418

22.2.6 Chromium/Silver Front Contact Grid 418

22.2.7 CZTS Solar Cell Device 419

22.3 Characterization of Cu₂ZnSnS₄ Thin Film Solar Cell 420

22.3.1 Typical Solar Cell Characterizations 420

22.3.2 Current-Voltage (I-V) Measurement 421

22.3.3 Quantum Efficiency (QE) 423

22.4 Conclusion 424

Acknowledgement 425

References 425

23 Parameter Estimation of Solar Cell Using Gravitational Search Algorithm 427
Kaustuv Das, Raju Basak, Souvik Ganguli and Asoke Kumar Paul

23.1 Introduction 427

23.2 Modelling of Photovoltaic Unit 429

23.2.1 Two-Diode Structure 430

23.3 Formation of Function 431

23.4 Gravitational Search Algorithm 433

23.4.1 The Gravitational Search Algorithm is Shown in Steps as Follows 435

23.5 Review of GSA 436

23.6 Application of GSA 436

23.7 Summary and Future Scope of Work 436

23.8 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) 437

23.8.1 Steps Involved for Particle Swarm Optimization 439

23.9 Results and Discussion 439

23.10 Conclusion 443

References 443

24 Study of the Most Commonly Utilized Maximum Power Point (MPP) Tracking (MPPT) Schemes for SPV Systems 447
Pawan Kumar Pathak, Anil Kumar Yadav and P. A. Alvi

24.1 Introduction 447

24.2 Problem Overview in SPV Power Extraction 448

24.3 Modeling of SPV System 449

24.4 MPPT Schemes 451

24.4.1 Perturb and Observe (P&O) 451

24.4.2 Incremental Conductance 455

24.4.3 Fuzzy Logic (FL) Based 459

24.4.4 Hybrid 466

24.5 Conclusion 470

References 470

25 An Investigation and Design of Symmetric and Asymmetric Inverter for Various Applications 473
L. Vijayaraja, S. Ganesh Kumar and M. Rivera

25.1 Introduction 473

25.2 Evaluation of Multilevel Inverters and Its Application in Recent Times 474

25.3 Design of 15-Level Inverter With Symmetric Voltage Source 476

25.4 Experimentation of 27-Level Symmetric Inverter 477

25.5 Design of 31-Level Inverter Using Asymmetric Voltage Sources 482

25.5.1 Mathematical Model of 31-Level Inverter 483

25.6 Development of 53-Level Inverter Using Packed Structures 487

25.7 Summary 491

References 491

26 A Demand Side Management Controller Configuration for Interleaved DC-DC Converters Applicable for Renewable Energy Sources 493
Davood Ghaderi, Gökay Bayrak and Umashankar Subramaniam

26.1 Introduction 493

26.2 Control Method and Proposed Controller Investigation 496

26.2.1 Power Sharing and Demand Side Management 501

26.3 Simulation Results 504

26.4 Experimental Results 508

26.5 Conclusion 512

References 514

27 Applications of Hybrid Wind Solar Battery Based Microgrid for Small-Scale Stand-Alone Systems and Grid Integration for Multi-Feeder Systems 517
P. Satish Kumar

27.1 Introduction 517

27.2 Stand-Alone HRES System 518

27.2.1 System Description 518

27.2.2 Results and Discussion 520

27.2.2.1 Performance of HRES During Source Variations Only 520

27.2.2.2 Performance of HRES During Load Variations Only 523

27.2.3 Conclusion 523

27.3 Grid-Connected HRES System 525

27.3.1 System Description 525

27.3.2 Results and Discussion 525

27.3.2.1 HRES Output 526

27.3.2.2 Performance of Grid-Connected HRES for Nonlinear Loads 528

27.3.2.3 Performance of Grid-Connected HRES for Source Voltage Imperfections 529

27.3.3 Conclusion 530

Acknowledgements 531

References 533

28 Challenging Issues and Solutions on Battery Thermal Management for Electric Vehicles 535
A. Gayathri, V. Manimegalai and P. Krishnakumar

28.1 Introduction 535

28.2 Principle and Working of Battery 536

28.3 Types of Batteries 536

28.3.1 Primary or Non-Rechargeable Batteries 537

28.3.2 Secondary or Rechargeable Batteries 537

28.3.2.1 Lead-Acid Batteries 538

28.3.2.2 Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cd) 538

28.3.2.3 Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) 538

28.3.2.4 Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) 539

28.3.3 Selection of Batteries 539

28.3.3.1 Why Lithium-Ion Battery? 540

28.4 Thermal Behavior of Batteries 542

28.5 Battery Thermal Management Systems 543

28.6 Methods of Battery Thermal Management Systems 544

28.6.1 Air Cooling BTMS 544

28.6.2 Liquid Cooling BTMS 546

28.6.3 Refrigerant Direct Cooling System BTMS 547

28.6.4 Phase Change Material-Based BTMS 548

28.6.5 Heat Pipe-Based BTMS 549

28.6.6 Thermoelectric Cooling 550

28.7 Conclusion 551

References 551

Index 555