Elements of Ecology

by Smith, Robert L.; Smith, Thomas M.

• ISBN13: 9780321068781
• ISBN10: 0321068785
• Edition: 5th
• Format: Package
• Copyright: 2003-01-01
• Publisher: Benjamin Cummings

Summary

This book provides readers with a popular modular organization and an easy-to-read writing style that explains the basics of ecology. The authors have updated the Fifth Edition to reflect the current emphasis on the physical environment, global environmental change, and adaptation/evolution. As a result, there are new chapters, a new structure, and new topics found in the table of contents. These changes provide readers with an understanding of the principles governing the relationships between plants, animals, and other living organisms within their environment, and give them skills to critically evaluating public issues related to ecology. Abundant real-life examples illustrate and clarify the book's emphasis on understanding ecological patterns within an evolutionary framework. For instructors and students, or anyone interested in ecology.

Table of Contents

Preface	v
Acknowledgments	vii
Introduction	1	(12)
What Is Ecology?	1	(3)
Science in the Real World	4	(1)
Formal Study and Employment	4	(4)
Some Career Profiles	8	(3)
Career and Job Opportunities Reference List	11	(2)
A Crowded Planet	13	(6)
Exponential Population Growth	13	(1)
Human Manipulation of Population Size	14	(1)
Maintaining and Increasing Resources	15	(2)
Developing an Ecocentric Viewpoint	17	(1)
References and Resources on Population Limits	18	(1)
Wrenches in the Ecosystem Machinery	19	(13)
What Is Pollution?	19	(1)
Energy Flow, Habitats, and Impacts	20	(1)
Solutions	21	(2)
Checklist for Reducing Consumption of Resources	23	(2)
Checklist for Reducing Output of Wastes and Pollutants	25	(2)
Addresses for Environmentally Friendly Products	27	(2)
Addresses for Information on Environmentally Friendly Products	29	(1)
Addresses for Information on Saving Energy and Avoiding Pollution	29	(2)
General Guides to Being Environmentally Responsible	31	(1)
Selected References for Combating Pollution and Waste	31	(1)
Habitat Diversity for a Quality Life	32	(9)
Biodiversity	32	(2)
Keys and Identification Aids	34	(1)
Biomes and Habitat Protection	34	(2)
Organizations for Preserving Biodiversity	36	(2)
References for Preserving Biodiversity	38	(3)
Involvement Groups	41	(6)
Starting or Joining an Involvement Group	41	(1)
Useful Addresses for Involvement Groups	42	(1)
Compromise and Points of Leverage	43	(1)
Influencing Legislators	44	(1)
Sample Letter to a Legislator	45	(1)
References for Involvement Groups	46	(1)
References, Directories, Organizations, and Other Resources	47	(12)
General Ecological References	47	(1)
Periodicals	48	(3)
Media	51	(1)
Directories and Agencies	51	(2)
Ecologically Concerned Organizations	53	(4)
General Field Equipment and Laboratory Supplies	57	(2)
Future Study	59	(6)
Ecology Field and Laboratory Exercises and Tools	59	(1)
Researching the Literature	60	(1)
Textbooks in Ecology and Environmental Science	61	(4)
Index of Organizations	65	(562)
Preface	xiii
PART I Introduction	1	(34)
The Nature of Ecology	3	(8)
Ecology is a science	4	(1)
The major unit of ecology is the ecosystem	4	(1)
Ecosystem components form a hierarchy	5	(1)
Ecology has strong ties to other disciplines	5	(3)
Focus on Ecology 1.1 A Brief History of Ecology	6	(2)
Ecologists use scientific methods	8	(1)
Experiments can lead to predictions	9	(1)
Uncertainty and debate are key features of science	9	(1)
We begin with the individual	10	(1)
Chapter Review	10	(1)
Adaptation and Evolution	11	(24)
Natural selection requires two conditions	12	(1)
Heritability is an essential feature of natural selection	13	(4)
Genes are the units of inheritance	17	(2)
Genetic variation is the essential ingredient for natural selection	19	(1)
The concept of species is based on genetic isolation	20	(3)
Focus on Ecology 2.1 Classifying Organisms	21	(2)
The process of speciation involves the development of reproductive isolation	23	(1)
Evolution is a change in gene frequency	24	(1)
Adaptations reflect tradeoffs and constraints	25	(10)
Focus on Ecology 2.2 Geographic Variation Within Species	26	(2)
Focus on Ecology 2.3 The Niche	28	(1)
Chapter Review	29	(2)
Ecological Application I Taking the Uncertainty out of Sex	31	(4)
PART II The Physical Environment	35	(64)
Climate	37	(18)
Earth intercepts solar radiation	38	(1)
Intercepted solar radiation varies over Earth's surface	39	(2)
Air temperature decreases with altitude	41	(3)
Air masses circulate globally	44	(2)
Solar energy, wind, and Earth's rotation create ocean currents	46	(1)
Temperature influences the amount of moisture air can hold	46	(1)
Precipitation has a global pattern	47	(2)
Inversions occur when surface air loses more energy than it receives	49	(2)
Focus on Ecology 3.1 Urban Microclimates	51	(1)
Most organisms live in microclimates	51	(4)
Chapter Review	53	(2)
The Abiotic Environment	55	(24)
Solar radiation includes visible light	56	(1)
Plant cover intercepts light	57	(2)
Daily and seasonal patterns of light govern life's activities	59	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 4.1 Beer's Law and the Attenuation of Light	60	(1)
The structure of water is based on hydrogen bonds	61	(1)
Water has important physical properties	62	(2)
Transfer of water between the environment and organisms involves osmosis	64	(1)
Water cycles between Earth and the atmosphere	64	(1)
Water movements shape freshwater and marine environments	65	(2)
Tides dominate the marine environment	67	(1)
All organisms live in a thermal environment	67	(1)
Aquatic environments experience seasonal shifts in temperature	68	(1)
Temperatures of the marine environment can be variable	69	(1)
Living organisms exchange energy with the environment	70	(1)
Essential nutrients are either macronutrients or micronutrients	71	(1)
Oxygen can be limiting in aquatic environments	71	(2)
Acidity has a pervasive influence on terrestrial and aquatic environments	73	(1)
Salinity dominates marine and arid environments	74	(5)
Chapter Review	75	(4)
Soil	79	(20)
Soil is not easily defined	80	(1)
Soil formation involves five interdependent factors	80	(1)
Formation of soil begins with mechanical and chemical weathering	81	(1)
Living organisms influence soil formation	82	(1)
The soil body has horizontal layers or horizons	82	(1)
Soils have certain distinguishing physical characteristics	83	(1)
Moisture-holding capacity is an essential feature of soils	84	(2)
Cation exchange capacity is important to soil fertility	86	(1)
Climate and vegetation produce different soils	87	(3)
Soil supports diverse and abundant life	90	(2)
Soils have been severely disturbed	92	(7)
Focus on Ecology 5.1 Fighting Soil Erosion	94	(1)
Chapter Review	94	(2)
Ecological Application II Blowin' in the Wind	96	(3)
PART III The Organism and Its Environment	99	(70)
Plant Adaptations to the Environment	101	(22)
Photosynthesis is the conversion of carbon dioxide into simple sugars	102	(1)
The light a plant receives affects its photosynthetic activity	103	(1)
Photosynthesis involves exchanges between the plant and atmosphere	103	(2)
Plant temperatures reflect their energy balance with the surrounding environment	105	(1)
Carbon gained in photosynthesis is allocated to the production of plant tissues	106	(1)
Constraints imposed by the physical environment have resulted in a wide array of plant adaptations	107	(1)
Species of plants are adapted to either high or low light	108	(3)
Focus on Ecology 6.1 Shaded by Water	109	(1)
Focus on Ecology 6.2 Leaf Morphology and Light	110	(1)
The link between water demand and temperature influences plant adaptations	111	(6)
Focus on Ecology 6.3 When Wet Can Be Dry: Saline Habitats	112	(2)
Focus on Ecology 6.4 Too Much of a Good Thing: Plants' Adaptations to Flooding	114	(3)
Plants acclimate to the prevailing temperatures of their environment	117	(1)
Focus on Ecology 6.5 Degree-Days: An Index for Integrating Temperature over Time	118	(1)
Plants exhibit adaptations to variation in nutrient availability	118	(5)
Chapter Review	120	(3)
Decomposers and Decomposition	123	(14)
Decomposition involves a variety of processes	124	(1)
A range of organisms is involved in decomposition	124	(2)
The types of carbon compounds in plant tissues influence their food quality	126	(1)
Litter quality influences the rate of decomposition	127	(1)
Decomposition of animal matter is more direct	128	(1)
Decomposition is also influenced by physical environment	129	(1)
Decomposers transform nutrients into a usable form	130	(2)
Focus on Ecology 7.1 Litterbag Studies	132	(1)
Decomposition in aquatic environments	132	(5)
Chapter Review	134	(3)
Animal Adaptations to the Environment	137	(32)
Animal have various ways of acquiring nutrients	138	(3)
Animals have various nutritional needs	141	(2)
Mineral availability affects animals' growth and reproduction	143	(1)
Animals require oxygen to release energy contained in food	144	(1)
Regulation of internal conditions involves homeostasis and feedback	144	(2)
Animals exchange energy with their surrounding environment	146	(1)
Animals fall into three groups relative to temperature regulation	147	(1)
Poikilotherms depend on environmental temperatures	148	(1)
Homeotherms escape the thermal restraints of the environment	149	(1)
Endothermy and ectothermy involve tradeoffs	149	(2)
Focus on Ecology 8.1 Body Size and Metabolism	150	(1)
Heterotherms take on characteristics of ectotherms and endotherms	151	(1)
Torpor helps some animals conserve energy	151	(1)
Poikilotherms exploit microclimates to regulate temperature	152	(1)
Insulation reduces heat exchange	153	(1)
Evaporative cooling in animals is important	153	(1)
Some animals use unique physiological means for thermal balance	154	(1)
Countercurrent circulation conserves or reduces body heat	154	(1)
Animals have ways of maintaining water balance	155	(1)
Animals of arid environments conserve water	156	(1)
Animals of saline environments have special problems	157	(1)
Daily seasonal light and dark cycles influence animal activity	157	(1)
Circadian rhythms have adaptive value	157	(2)
Focus on Ecology 8.2 How Biological Clocks Measure Time	158	(1)
Critical daylengths trigger seasonal responses	159	(2)
Focus on Ecology 8.3 Deer Antlers	160	(1)
Activity rhythms of intertidal organisms follow tidal cycles	161	(1)
Buoyancy aids aquatic organisms to stay afloat	162	(7)
Chapter Review	163	(3)
Ecological Application III St. Patrick and the Absence of Snakes of Ireland	166	(3)
PART IV Populations	169	(70)
Properties of Populations	171	(14)
Populations may be unitary or modular	172	(1)
The distribution of organisms reflects environmental variation	173	(2)
Density affects individuals in a population	175	(1)
Density is difficult to define	176	(1)
Dispersion of individuals influences population density	177	(1)
Dispersal of individuals influences local abundance	177	(2)
Determining density requires sampling	179	(1)
Populations have age structures	180	(1)
Determining age structure requires finding individual ages	180	(2)
Focus on Ecology 9.1 Capture-Recapture Sampling	181	(1)
Age pyramids portray age structure	182	(1)
Sex ratios in populations may shift with age	183	(2)
Chapter Review	183	(2)
Population Growth	185	(18)
Probability of surviving is age-specific	186	(1)
A life table gives a systematic picture of age-specific mortality and survival	186	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 10.1 Constructing a Life Table	188	(1)
Plant life tables are more complex	188	(1)
Life tables provide data for mortality and survivorship curves	189	(2)
Natality is age-specific	191	(1)
Natality and survivorship determine reproductive rates	192	(1)
Age-specific mortality and birthrates can project population growth	192	(2)
Exponential growth is like compound interest	194	(1)
Rate of increase is used in population studies	195	(1)
Population growth is limited by the environment	195	(2)
Populations fluctuate around upper and lower limits	197	(1)
Populations can decline toward extinction	198	(1)
Past extinctions have been clustered in time	198	(1)
Extinction of species begins locally	199	(4)
Chapter Review	200	(3)
Intraspecific Population Regulation	203	(16)
Population regulation involves density dependence	204	(1)
When resources are limited, competition results	204	(1)
Intraspecific competition affects growth and development	205	(4)
Focus on Ecology 11.1 The African Buffalo	206	(3)
Intraspecific competition can reduce reproduction	209	(1)
High density is stressful to individuals	209	(1)
Dispersal may or may not be density-dependent	210	(1)
Social behavior may limit populations	211	(1)
Social dominance can affect reproduction and survival	211	(1)
Social interactions influence activities and home ranges	212	(1)
Territoriality may regulate populations	213	(1)
Plants capture and ``defend'' space	214	(1)
Focus on Ecology 11.2 Thinning the Ranks	215	(1)
Density-independent influences can be strong	215	(4)
Chapter Review	216	(3)
Life History Patterns	219	(20)
Reproduction may be sexual or asexual	220	(1)
Sexual reproduction takes a variety of forms	221	(2)
Mating Strategies take several forms	223	(1)
Acquisition of a mate involves sexual selection	224	(1)
Females may acquire mates based on resources	225	(1)
Mating in a small population can result in inbreeding	226	(1)
Organisms budget time and energy to reproduction	226	(1)
Parental investment depends upon the number and size of young	227	(1)
Environmental conditions influence life history characteristics	228	(1)
Food supply affects the production of young	229	(1)
Fecundity depends on age and size	230	(1)
Reproductive effort may vary with latitude	230	(1)
Habitat selection influences reproductive success	231	(2)
Life history characteristics drive population dynamics	233	(6)
Chapter Review	234	(2)
Ecological Application IV Cheating Nature	236	(3)
PART V Communities	239	(154)
Community Structure	241	(28)
Species within the community have positive, negative, or zero effects on each other	242	(1)
Quantifying Ecology 13.1 Some Measures of Dominance	243	(1)
Communities vary in biological structure	243	(1)
Number and relative abundance define species diversity	243	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 13.2 Indexes of Diversity	245	(1)
Food webs describe species interactions	245	(2)
Communities have defining physical structure	247	(1)
Communities have a characteristic vertical stratification	247	(3)
Focus on Ecology 13.1 Plant Life Form Classification	248	(2)
Spatial change in community structure is zonation	250	(3)
Defining boundaries between communities is often difficult	253	(1)
Quantifying Ecology 13.3 Community Similarity	254	(1)
Classification of communities is scale-dependent	254	(2)
Temporal change in community structure is succession	256	(1)
Succession is common to all environments	256	(2)
Succession is either primary or secondary	258	(2)
Succession involves heterotrophic species	260	(1)
Community structure changes over geological time	261	(1)
Two contrasting views of the community	262	(3)
Understanding community structure requires understanding species interactions	265	(4)
Chapter Review	266	(3)
Interspecific Competition	269	(20)
Interspecific competition involves two or more species	270	(1)
There are four possible outcomes of interspecific competition	270	(3)
Focus on Ecology 14.1 A Chemical Solution to Competition in Plants	271	(2)
Laboratory experments support the Lotka-Volterra equations	273	(1)
Studies suggest the competitive exclusion principle	274	(1)
Competition is influenced by nonresource factors	275	(1)
Temporal variation in environment influences competitive interactions	275	(1)
Competition occurs for multiple resources	276	(2)
Relative competitive abilities change along environmental gradients	278	(2)
Species coexistence involves partitioning available resources	280	(2)
Focus on Ecology 14.2 Ghosts of Competition Past	282	(1)
Interspecific competition influences the realized niche	282	(3)
The importance of competition is difficult to demonstrate in the field	285	(4)
Focus on Ecology 14.3 Invasion of the Aliens	286	(1)
Chapter Review	287	(2)
Predation	289	(20)
Predation takes a variety of forms	290	(1)
Mathematical models describe the basics of predation	290	(2)
Model suggests mutual population regulation	292	(1)
Functional responses relate prey taken to prey density	292	(1)
Predators develop a search image for prey	293	(1)
Predators may turn to alternate, more abundant prey	294	(1)
Predators respond numerically to changing prey density	294	(2)
Coevolution can occur between predator and prey	296	(1)
Prey have evolved defenses against predators	296	(2)
Predators have evolved efficient hunting tactics	298	(1)
Animals use a foraging strategy	299	(1)
Foragers seek productive food patches	300	(1)
Herbivores prey on plants	301	(2)
Focus on Ecology 15.1 Carnivorous Plants	302	(1)
Plants defend themselves from herbivores	303	(2)
Focus on Ecology 15.2 Grazing the West	305	(1)
Plants, herbivores, and carnivores interact	305	(1)
Does predation influence community structure?	306	(3)
Chapter Review	307	(2)
Parasitism and Mutualism	309	(20)
Parasites draw resources from host organisms	310	(1)
Hosts provide diverse habitats for parasites	310	(1)
Direct transmission can occur between host organisms	311	(1)
Transmission between hosts can involve an intermediate vector	311	(1)
Transmission can involve multiple hosts and stages	312	(2)
Hosts respond to parasitic invasions	314	(1)
Parasites can impact host survival and reproduction	315	(1)
Parasites and hosts may evolve an uneasy truce	315	(1)
Parasites may regulate host populations	316	(2)
Focus on Ecology 16.1 Plagues upon Us	317	(1)
Parasitism can evolve into a positive relationship	318	(1)
Symbiotic mutualisms are involved in the transfer of nutrients	318	(3)
Focus on Ecology 16.2 Permanent House Guests	320	(1)
Some symbiotic mutualisms are defensive	321	(1)
Mutualisms may be nonsymbiotic	322	(1)
Mutualisms are often necessary for pollination	322	(1)
Mutualisms are involved in seed dispersal	323	(2)
Facilitation is a form of mutualism	325	(1)
Mutualism can influence community structure	326	(3)
Chapter Review	327	(2)
Processes Shaping Communities	329	(20)
The fundamental niche constrains community structure	330	(1)
Species interactions are diffuse	331	(1)
Food webs illustrate indirect interactions	331	(3)
Focus on Ecology 17.1 The Politics of Nature	333	(1)
Food webs suggest controls of community structure	334	(3)
Focus on Ecology 17.2 Rivets or Redundancy?	335	(2)
Species interactions along environmental gradients involve both stress tolerance and competition	337	(3)
Community structure changes along a temporal, autogenic gradient	340	(3)
Focus on Ecology 17.3 A Succession of Ideas	341	(2)
Species diversity changes during succession	343	(2)
Habitat links the structure of plant and animal components of the community	345	(4)
Chapter Review	346	(3)
Human Interactions Within Communities	349	(18)
Exploitation of natural populations led to management	350	(1)
Continued exploitation depends on sustained yield	350	(3)
Achieving sustainable yield is often difficult	353	(1)
Sustained yield is also applied to forestry	354	(2)
Human activities have benefited some species at the expense of others	356	(1)
Human-introduced invasive species significantly alter natural communities	357	(1)
Many species clash with human interests	358	(1)
A variety of means are deployed to control weed and pest species	359	(4)
Focus on Ecology 18.1 Insect Wars	360	(2)
Focus on Ecology 18.2 Endangered Species---Endangered Legislation	362	(1)
Restoration efforts attempt to undo damage to communities	363	(4)
Chapter Review	364	(3)
Landscape Ecology	367	(26)
Environmental processes create a variety of patches in the landscape	368	(1)
Transition zones offer diverse conditions and habitats	369	(1)
Patch size and shape are critical to species diversity	370	(5)
The theory of island biogeography applies to landscape patches	375	(1)
In fragmented landscapes, corridors permit movement between isolated patches	376	(1)
Metapopulations decrease vulnerability to local extinctions	377	(1)
The impact of disturbance is determined by frequency, intensity, and scale	378	(3)
Focus on Ecology 19.1 Genetic Drift and Effective Population Size	379	(2)
Various natural processes function as disturbances	381	(4)
Focus on Ecology 19.2 One Man's Meat	382	(1)
Focus on Ecology 19.3 Fire Ecology	383	(2)
Human disturbance creates some of the most long-lasting effects	385	(1)
The landscape represents a shifting mosaic of changing components	385	(8)
Chapter Review	387	(2)
Ecological Application V Asteroids, Bulldozers, and Biodiversity	389	(4)
PART VI Ecosystems	393	(72)
Ecosystem Productivity	395	(22)
The ecosystem consists of the biotic and abiotic	396	(1)
All ecosystems have three basic components	396	(1)
The laws of thermodynamics govern energy flow	397	(1)
Primary production fixes energy	398	(1)
Energy allocation varies among primary producers	398	(2)
Environmental controls on primary production	400	(4)
Focus on Ecology 20.1 Productivity of a Corn Field	403	(1)
Primary production varies with time	404	(1)
Primary Productivity limits secondary production	404	(2)
Consumers vary in efficiency of production	406	(1)
Ecosystems have two major food chains	407	(1)
Energy flows through trophic levels	408	(2)
Energy decreases in each successive trophic level	410	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 20.1 Ecological Efficiencies	411	(1)
Patterns of energy flow through food chain vary among ecosystems	412	(1)
Ecological pyramids characterize distribution of energy	413	(4)
Chapter Review	414	(3)
Nutrient Cycling	417	(16)
All nutrients follow biogeochemical cycles	418	(1)
Nutrients enter the ecosystem via inputs	418	(1)
Focus on Ecology 21.1 The Gaia Hypothesis	419	(1)
Nutrients are recycled within the ecosystem	419	(1)
Key ecosystem processes influence the rate of nutrient cycling	420	(2)
Focus on Ecology 21.2 Hot Ecology	421	(1)
Both climate and plant characteristics influence the rate of nutrient cycling	422	(1)
Outputs represent a loss of nutrients from the ecosystem	423	(2)
Nutrient cycling differs between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems	425	(2)
Water flow influences nutrient cycling in streams and rivers	427	(2)
Land and marine environments influence nutrient cycling in coastal ecosystems	429	(2)
Surface ocean currents bring about vertical transport of nutrients	431	(2)
Chapter Review	431	(2)
Biogeochemical Cycles	433	(16)
The carbon cycle is closely tied to energy flow	434	(1)
The cycling of carbon varies daily and seasonally	434	(2)
The global carbon cycle involves exchanges among the atmosphere, oceans, and land	436	(2)
The nitrogen cycle begins with fixing atmospheric nitrogen	438	(3)
The phosphorus cycle has no atmospheric reservoir	441	(1)
The sulfur cycle is both sedimentary and gaseous	442	(1)
The global sulfur cycle is poorly understood	443	(1)
The oxygen cycle is largely under biological control	444	(1)
The various biogeochemical cycles are linked	445	(4)
Chapter Review	446	(3)
Human Intrusions into Biogeochemical Cycles	449	(16)
Human activities are altering the global carbon cycle	450	(1)
Human-produced emissions of nitrogen act as pollutants	450	(1)
Human-produced sulfur dioxide is a major air pollutant	451	(2)
The sulfur and nitrogen cycles produce acid deposition	453	(1)
Acid deposition impacts soils and aquatic systems	454	(2)
Focus on Ecology 23.1 Air Pollution and Forest Decline	455	(1)
Pollutants influence the dynamics of ozone	456	(1)
Human intrusion in the phosphorus cycle involves its redistribution	457	(1)
Heavy metals also cycle through ecosystems	457	(1)
Chlorinated hydrocarbons establish cycles	458	(7)
Chapter Review	460	(1)
Ecological Application VI Time to Rethink the Lawn	461	(4)
PART VII Biogeography and Biodiversity	465	(162)
Biogeography and Biodiversity	467	(26)
The classification of ecosystems and climate have a linked history	469	(2)
Terrestrial ecosystems reflect adaptations of the dominant plant life forms	471	(8)
Focus on Ecology 24.1 Animal Distribution: The Biogeographical Realm	476	(3)
Aquatic ecosystems are classified on the basis of physical features	479	(1)
Regional and global patterns of species diversity vary geographically	480	(1)
Species richness in terrestrial ecosystems correlates with climate and productivity	481	(3)
In marine environments, there is an inverse relationship between productivity and diversity	484	(1)
Species diversity is a function of processes operating at many scales	485	(1)
Charles Darwin was a student of geography: Adaptation revisited	486	(7)
Focus on Ecology 24.2 Ecoregions: Classifying and Mapping Ecosystems for Resource Management	488	(2)
Focus on Ecology 24.3 Predicting Climate from Pollen	490	(1)
Chapter Review	491	(2)
Terrestrial Ecosystems 1: Forests, Woodlands, and Savannas	493	(24)
The structure and function of forest ecosystems vary with climate	494	(2)
The seasonality of rainfall influences the nature of tropical forest ecosystems	496	(2)
Tropical rain forests have a complex biological and physical structure	498	(1)
The mature tropical forest is a mosaic of continually changing vegetation	499	(1)
Stratification of vegetation supports a diversity of animal life	500	(1)
Deciduous forests characterize the wetter environments of the warm temperate regions	500	(1)
Four distinct layers characterize the vertical structure of a temperate deciduous forest	501	(1)
Vertical structure in the temperate forest influences the diversity and distribution of life	502	(1)
Subtropical areas support temperate evergreen forests	502	(1)
Temperate coniferous forests inhabit a variety of different environments	503	(1)
Coniterous forests have a simple vertical structure that varies with the dominant species	504	(1)
Animal life in coniferous forests is varied	505	(2)
Boreal forests are the dominant forests of the northern latitudes	507	(1)
The seasonal freezing and thawing of soil influences the structure and dynamics of boreal ecosystems	507	(1)
The boreal forest has a relatively simple structure	508	(1)
The boreal forest has a unique animal community	508	(1)
At high elevations, the forest is reduced to stunted trees	509	(1)
Reduced soil moisture gives rise to woodlands	510	(1)
Savannas form the transition from forest to grassland in the tropics	511	(2)
Savannas have a distinct physical structure	513	(1)
Savannas support a diversity of herbivores	513	(1)
The seasonality of rainfall drives productivity and nutrient cycling in savanna ecosystems	514	(3)
Chapter Review	514	(3)
Terrestrial Ecosystems 11: Grassland, Shrubland, Desert, and Tundra	517	(26)
Increasing aridity marks the transition from forest to grassland in the temperate zone	518	(1)
The character of grassland ecosystems varies with climate and geography	518	(4)
The vertical structure of a grassland changes with the season	522	(1)
Grasslands support a diversity of animal life	523	(1)
Productivity and nutrient cycling in grasslands is governed by moisture	524	(1)
Grasslands evolved under grazing pressure	524	(1)
Shrubland ecosystems occupy the arid and semiarid regions of the tropics	525	(1)
Shrubs are difficult to characterize	526	(1)
Winter rainfall characterizes the mediterranean shrublands of the world	526	(3)
Heathlands are a taxonomically distinct form of shrublands	529	(1)
Heterogeneity is a characteristic of shrubland structure	530	(1)
Shrub ecosystems support a unique animal community	530	(1)
Deserts represent a diverse group of ecosystems	531	(2)
Desert ecosystems have a simple physical structure	533	(1)
Moisture limits productivity and nutrient cycling in desert ecosystems	534	(1)
Adapted to aridity, desert animal life is diverse	534	(1)
Low precipitation and cold temperatures characterize the tundra	535	(2)
Simple structure and low diversity characterize the vegetation of the tundra	537	(1)
Low temperatures and extreme seasonality control tundra productivity and nutrient cycling	538	(2)
Low in diversity, tundra animals are well adapted to the cold	540	(3)
Chapter Review	541	(2)
Freshwater and Estuarine Ecosystems	543	(18)
Lakes have many origins	544	(1)
Lakes have well-defined physical characteristics	544	(2)
The littoral zone supports the richest diversity of life	546	(1)
Planktonic organisms dominate life in the limnetic zone	546	(2)
Life in the profundal zone is restricted	548	(1)
The benthic zone is the site of decomposition	548	(1)
The character of a lake reflects its surrounding landscape	549	(2)
Velocity influences the characteristics of flowing-water communities	551	(1)
Flowing-water ecosystems vary in structure and types of habitats	551	(1)
Life is highly adapted to flowing water	552	(2)
The flowing-water ecosystem is a continuum of changing environments	554	(2)
By regulating flows, dams interfere with the river continuum	556	(1)
Rivers flow into the sea, forming estuaries	557	(1)
Estuarine organisms encounter both flowing water and salinity	558	(3)
Chapter Review	559	(2)
Marine Ecosystems	561	(18)
Oceans exhibit zonation and stratification	562	(1)
Pelagic communities are hidden beneath the surface	563	(1)
Phytoplankton dominates oceanic surface waters	564	(1)
Dominant herbivores are zooplankton	564	(2)
Nekton comprise swimming organisms	566	(1)
Benthos is a world of its own	566	(1)
Hydrothermal vents are unique benthic ecosystems	567	(1)
Life on the seashore is complex	567	(1)
Tides and waves influence life on rocky shores	568	(3)
Sandy and muddy shores are harsh environments	571	(1)
Life on sandy shores is largely hidden	572	(1)
Organic matter is the basis of life on sandy shores	572	(2)
Coral reefs are oases in tropical seas	574	(1)
Built by colonies of coral animals, coral reefs are complex ecosystems	575	(1)
Zonation of coral reefs results from biotic and abiotic interactions	575	(1)
Pollution endangers open sea and coastal ecosystems	576	(3)
Chapter Review	577	(2)
Wetlands	579	(18)
What defines a wetland?	580	(1)
Wetlands come in many types	581	(5)
Hydrology defines the structure of freshwater wetlands	586	(1)
Tides and salinity dictate the structure of salt marshes	587	(3)
Range and duration of tidal flooding dictate the formation of mangrove swamps	590	(1)
Freshwater wetlands support a rich diversity of life	591	(1)
Animal life in the salt marsh is adapted to tidal rhythms	591	(1)
Mangroves are rich in animal life	592	(1)
Wetlands have long been considered wastelands	592	(2)
Wetlands are important ecologically and economically	594	(3)
Chapter Review	595	(2)
Global Environmental Change	597	(30)
Atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide is rising	598	(2)
Focus on Ecology 30.1 Monitoring Vegetation Change from Space	600	(1)
Tracking the fate of CO2 emissions	600	(2)
Atmospheric CO2 concentrations affect CO2 uptake by oceans	602	(1)
Plants respond to increased atmospheric CO2	603	(2)
Focus on Ecology 30.2 Raising CO2 in a Forest: What Happens?	605	(1)
Greenhouse gases are changing the global climate	605	(6)
Focus on Ecology 30.3 Modeling Earth's Climate	606	(4)
Focus on Ecology 30.4 Who Turned Up the Heat?	610	(1)
Changes in climate will affect ecosystems at many levels	611	(4)
Changing climate will shift the global distribution of ecosystems	615	(1)
Global warming would raise sea level and affect coastal environments	616	(2)
Climate change will affect agricultural production	618	(1)
Climate change will both directly and indirectly affect human health	619	(2)
Understanding global change requires the study of ecology at a global scale	621	(6)
Chapter Review	622	(2)
Ecological Application VII How a Lack of Mushrooms Helped Power the Industrial Revolution	624	(3)
References	627	(18)
Glossary	645	(16)
Credits	661	(4)
Index	665