Elements of Ecology

by Smith, Thomas M.; Smith, Robert Leo

• ISBN13: 9780805348309
• ISBN10: 0805348301
• Edition: 7th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2009-01-01
• Publisher: Benjamin Cummings

Summary

KEY BENEFIT:Elements of Ecology, Sixth Edition maintains its engaging, reader-friendly style as it explains the basic principles of ecology. The text is updated to include new chapters on current ecological topics; new part introductions to connect the subfields of ecology; and new in-text features to encourage students to interpret the ecological data, research, and models used throughout the text. Abundant, accessible examples illustrate and clarify the text's emphasis on understanding ecological patterns within an evolutionary framework. Additionally, the text employs new study questions requiring students to make connections and apply their knowledge. KEY TOPICS: Introduction and Background, The Nature of Ecology, Adaptation and Evolution, The Physical Environment, Climate, The Aquatic Environment, The Terrestrial Environment, Organismal Ecology, Plant Adaptations, Animal Adaptations, Life History Patterns, Population Ecology,Properties of Populations, Population Growth, Interspecific Population Regulation, Metapopulations, The Ecology of Species Interactions,Competition, Predation, Parasitism and Mutualism, Community Ecology,Community Structure, Factors Influencing the Structure of Communities, Community Dynamics, Landscape Ecology, Ecosystem Ecology, Ecosystem Energetics, Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling, Biogeochemical Cycles, Biogeographical Ecology,Terrestrial Ecosystems, Aquatic Ecosystems, Land-Water Interface, Large-scale Patterns of Biodiversity, Human Ecology, Population Growth, Resource Use, and Sustainability, Habitat Decline, Biodiversity, and Conservation Ecology, Global Climate Change. MARKET: For all readers interested in the basic principles ecology.

Table of Contents

Preface	xxii
Part One Introduction and Background	2	(40)
The Nature of Ecology	4	(13)
Organisms Interact with the Environment in the Context of the Ecosystem	5	(1)
Ecosystem Components Form a Hierarchy	5	(1)
Ecology Has a Rich History	6	(1)
Ecology Has Strong Ties to Other Disciplines	7	(2)
Ecological Issues | The Human Factor	8	(1)
Ecologists Use Scientific Methods	9	(4)
Quantifying Ecology 1.1 Classifying Ecological Data	9	(1)
Quantifying Ecology 1.2 Displaying Ecological Data: Histograms and Scatterplots	10	(3)
Experiments Can Lead to Predictions	13	(1)
Uncertainty Is an Inherent Feature of Science	13	(1)
The Individual Is the Basic Unit of Ecology	14	(3)
Summary	15	(1)
Study Questions	15	(1)
Further Readings	16	(1)
Adaptation and Evolution	17	(25)
Natural Selection Requires Two Conditions	18	(2)
Heritability Is an Essential Feature of Natural Selection	20	(2)
Genes Are the Units of Inheritance	22	(2)
Genetic Variation Is the Essential Ingredient for Natural Selection	24	(1)
Evolution Is a Change in Gene Frequency	25	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 2.1 Descriptive Statistics	26	(1)
The Concept of Species Is Based on Genetic Isolation	27	(4)
Quantifying Ecology 2.2 Confidence Intervals	28	(3)
The Process of Speciation Involves the Development of Reproductive Isolation	31	(2)
Geographic Variation Within Species Provides Insight into the Process of Speciation	33	(4)
Researcher Profile | Beren W. Robinson	34	(2)
Ecological Issues | The Ecology of Antibiotic Resistance	36	(1)
Adaptations Reflect Trade-offs and Constraints	37	(5)
Summary	40	(1)
Study Questions	40	(1)
Further Readings	41	(1)
Part Two The Physical Environment	42	(60)
Climate	44	(21)
Earth Intercepts Solar Radiation	45	(2)
Intercepted Solar Radiation Varies Seasonally	47	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 3.1 Energy Transfer Through Radiation	48	(1)
Air Temperature Decreases with Altitude	49	(2)
Air Masses Circulate Globally	51	(3)
Solar Energy, Wind, and Earth's Rotation Create Ocean Currents	54	(1)
Temperature Influences the Moisture Content of Air	55	(1)
Precipitation Has a Distinctive Global Pattern	55	(2)
Topography Influences Regional and Local Patterns of Precipitation	57	(1)
Irregular Variations in Climate Occur at the Regional Scale	57	(3)
Most Organisms Live in Microclimates	60	(5)
Ecological Issues | Urban Microclimates	62	(1)
Summary	63	(1)
Study Questions	64	(1)
Further Readings	64	(1)
The Aquatic Environment	65	(19)
Water Cycles Between Earth and the Atmosphere	64	(5)
Ecological Issues | Groundwater Resources	68	(1)
Water Has Important Physical Properties	69	(2)
Light Varies with Depth in Aquatic Environments	71	(1)
Temperature Varies with Water Depth	71	(1)
Water Functions as a Solvent	72	(2)
Oxygen Diffuses from the Atmosphere to the Surface Waters	74	(1)
Acidity Has a Widespread Influence on Aquatic Environments	75	(3)
Quantifying Ecology 4.1 Diffusion and Osmosis	76	(2)
Water Movements Shape Freshwater and Marine Environments	78	(1)
Tides Dominate the Marine Coastal Environment	79	(2)
The Transition Zone Between Freshwater and Saltwater Environments Presents Unique Constraints	81	(3)
Summary	82	(1)
Study Questions	83	(1)
Further Readings	83	(1)
The Terrestrial Environment	84	(18)
Life on Land Imposes Unique Constraints	85	(1)
Plant Cover Influences the Vertical Distribution of Light	86	(4)
Quantifying Ecology 5.1 Beer's Law and the Attenuation of Light	88	(2)
Soil Is the Foundation Upon Which All Terrestrial Life Depends	90	(1)
The Formation of Soil Begins with Weathering	91	(1)
Soil Formation Involves Five Interrelated Factors	91	(1)
Soils Have Certain Distinguishing Physical Characteristics	92	(1)
The Soil Body Has Horizontal Layers, or Horizons	92	(1)
Moisture-Holding Capacity Is an Essential Feature of Soils	93	(2)
Ion Exchange Capacity Is Important to Soil Fertility	95	(1)
Basic Soil Formation Processes Produce Different Soils	96	(6)
Ecological Issues | Land Use and Soil Salinization	99	(1)
Summary	100	(1)
Study Questions	101	(1)
Further Readings	101	(1)
Part Three The Organism and Its Environment	102	(82)
Plant Adaptations to the Environment	104	(29)
Photosynthesis Is the Conversion of Carbon Dioxide into Simple Sugars	105	(1)
The Light a Plant Receives Affects Its Photosynthetic Activity	106	(1)
Photosynthesis Involves Exchanges Between the Plant and Atmosphere	106	(1)
Water Moves from the Soil, Through the Plant, to the Atmosphere	107	(3)
The Process of Carbon Uptake Differs Between Aquatic and Terrestrial Plants	110	(1)
Plant Temperatures Reflect Their Energy Balance with the Surrounding Environment	110	(1)
Carbon Gained in Photosynthesis Is Allocated to the Production of Plant Tissues	111	(1)
Constraints Imposed by the Physical Environment Have Resulted in a Wide Array of Plant Adaptations	112	(1)
Species of Plants Are Adapted to Either High or Low Light	113	(4)
The Link Between Water Demand and Temperature Influences Plant Adaptations	117	(8)
Researcher Profile | Kaoru Kitajima	118	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 6.1 Relative Growth Rate	120	(2)
Ecological Issues | Global Warming and Grapes	122	(3)
Plants Vary in Their Response to Environmental Temperatures	125	(2)
Plants Exhibit Adaptations to Variations in Nutrient Availability	127	(6)
Summary	130	(2)
Study Questions	132	(1)
Further Readings	132	(1)
Animal Adaptations to the Environment	133	(30)
Animals Have Various Ways of Acquiring Energy and Nutrients	134	(4)
Animals Have Various Nutritional Needs	138	(1)
Mineral Availability Affects Growth and Reproduction of Animals	138	(1)
Animals Require Oxygen to Release Energy Contained in Food	139	(1)
Regulation of Internal Conditions Involves Homeostasis and Feedback	139	(5)
Researcher Profile | Martin Wikelski	142	(2)
Animals Exchange Energy with Their Surrounding Environment	144	(1)
Animals Fall into Three Groups Relative to Temperature Regulation	144	(1)
Poikilotherms Depend on Environmental Temperatures	145	(1)
Homeotherms Escape the Thermal Restraints of the Environment	146	(2)
Endothermy and Ectothermy Involve Trade-offs	148	(1)
Heterotherms Take on Characteristics of Ectotherms and Endotherms	149	(3)
Quantifying Ecology 7.1 Heat Exchange and Temperature Regulation	150	(2)
Torpor Helps Some Animals Conserve Energy	152	(1)
Some Animals Use Unique Physiological Means for Thermal Balance	152	(2)
Maintenance of Water Balance for Terrestrial Animals Is Constrained by Uptake and Conservation	154	(1)
Animals of Aquatic Environments Face Unique Problems in Maintaining Water Balance	154	(1)
Buoyancy Aids Aquatic Organisms to Stay Afloat	155	(1)
Daily and Seasonal Light and Dark Cycles Influence Animal Activity	156	(1)
Ecological Issues | Humans and the Diurnal Cycle	157	(1)
Critical Daylengths Trigger Seasonal Responses	157	(2)
Activity Rhythms of Intertidal Organisms Follow Tidal Cycles	159	(4)
Summary	160	(2)
Study Questions	162	(1)
Further Readings	162	(1)
Life History Patterns	163	(21)
Reproduction May Be Sexual or Asexual	164	(1)
Sexual Reproduction Takes a Variety of Forms	165	(1)
Mating Systems Describe the Pairing of Males and Females	166	(2)
Acquisition of a Mate Involves Sexual Selection	168	(1)
Females May Acquire Mates Based on Resources	169	(1)
Organisms Budget Time and Energy to Reproduction	169	(3)
Researcher Profile | Alexandra L. Basolo	170	(2)
Species Differ in the Timing of Reproduction	172	(1)
Parental Investment Depends on the Number and Size of Young	173	(1)
Fecundity Depends on Age and Size	173	(1)
Food Supply Affects the Production of Young	174	(1)
Reproductive Effort May Vary with Latitude	174	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 8.1 Interpreting Trade-offs	176	(1)
Habitat Selection Influences Reproductive Success	176	(2)
Environmental Conditions Influence the Evolution of Life History Characteristics	178	(6)
Ecological Issues | The Life History of Maize: A Story of Unnatural Selection	179	(2)
Summary	181	(1)
Study Questions	182	(1)
Further Readings	182	(2)
Part Four Populations	184	(72)
Properties of Populations	186	(18)
Organisms May Be Unitary or Modular	187	(1)
The Distribution of a Population Defines Its Spatial Location	188	(3)
Abundance Reflects Both the Population Density and Distribution	191	(1)
Determining Density Requires Sampling	192	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 9.1 Sampling a Population	194	(1)
Populations Have Age Structures	194	(3)
Sex Ratios in Populations May Shift with Age	197	(1)
Individuals Move Within the Population	198	(2)
Ecological Issues | Human-Assisted Dispersal	200	(1)
Population Distribution and Density Change in Both Time and Space	200	(4)
Summary	202	(1)
Study Questions	203	(1)
Further Readings	203	(1)
Population Growth	204	(19)
Population Growth Reflects the Difference Between Rates of Birth and Death	205	(4)
Quantifying Ecology 10.1 Derivatives and Differential Equations	206	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 10.2 Exponential Model of Population Growth	208	(1)
Life Tables Provide a Schedule of Age-Specific Mortality and Survival	209	(1)
Different Types of Life Tables Reflect Different Approaches to Defining Cohorts and Age Structure	210	(1)
Quantifying Ecology 10.3 Life Expectancy	211	(1)
Life Tables Provide Data for Mortality and Survivorship Curves	211	(2)
Birthrate Is Age-Specific	213	(1)
Birthrate and Survivorship Determine Net Reproductive Rate	214	(1)
Age-Specific Mortality and Birthrates Can Be Used to Project Population Growth	214	(3)
Stochastic Processes Can Influence Population Dynamics	217	(1)
A Variety of Factors Can Lead to Population Extinction	217	(2)
Ecological Issues | Biological Control and the Allee Effect	218	(1)
Small Populations Are Susceptible to Extinction	219	(4)
Summary	220	(1)
Study Questions	221	(1)
Further Readings	221	(2)
Intraspecific Population Regulation	223	(18)
The Environment Functions to Limit Population Growth	224	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 11.1 The Logistic Model of Population Growth	226	(1)
Population Regulation Involves Density Dependence	226	(3)
Ecological Issues | The Human Carrying Capacity	227	(2)
Competition Results when Resources Are Limited	229	(1)
Intraspecific Competition Affects Growth and Development	229	(1)
Intraspecific Competition Can Reduce Reproduction	230	(2)
High Density Is Stressful to Individuals	232	(1)
Dispersal Can Be Density-Dependent	232	(1)
Social Behavior May Function to Limit Populations	233	(1)
Territoriality Can Function to Regulate Population Growth	233	(4)
Researcher Profile | T. Scott Sillett	234	(3)
Plants Preempt Space and Resources	237	(1)
Density-Independent Factors Can Influence Population Growth	238	(3)
Summary	239	(1)
Study Questions	240	(1)
Further Readings	240	(1)
Metapopulations	241	(15)
Four Conditions Define a Metapopulation	242	(2)
Metapopulation Dynamics Is a Balance Between Colonization and Extinction	244	(1)
Quantifying Ecology 12.1 Equilibrium Proportion of Occupied Patches	245	(1)
Patch Area and Isolation Influence Metapopulation Dynamics	245	(4)
Ecological Issues | The Metapopulation Concept in Conservation Ecology	248	(1)
Habitat Heterogeneity Influences Local Population Persistence	249	(1)
Some Habitat Patches May Function as the Major Source of Emigrants	250	(1)
Certain Factors Can Function to Synchronize the Dynamics of Local Populations	251	(1)
Species Differ in Their Potential Rates of Colonization and Extinction	252	(1)
The Concept of Population Is Best Approached by Using a Hierarchical Framework	253	(3)
Summary	254	(1)
Study Questions	255	(1)
Further Readings	255	(1)
Part Five Species Interactions	256	(76)
Interspecific Competition	258	(25)
Interspecific Competition Involves Two or More Species	259	(1)
There Are Four Possible Outcomes of Interspecific Competition	259	(2)
Laboratory Experiments Support the Lotka-Volterra Equations	261	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 13.1 Interpreting Population Isoclines	263	(1)
Studies Support the Competitive Exclusion Principle	263	(1)
Competition Is Influenced by Nonresource Factors	264	(1)
Temporal Variation in the Environment Influences Competitive Interactions	265	(1)
Competition Occurs for Multiple Resources	265	(4)
Researcher Profile | Katherine N. Suding	266	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 13.2 Competition Under Changing Environmental Conditions: Application of the Lotka-Volterra Model	268	(1)
Relative Competitive Abilities Change Along Environmental Gradients	269	(3)
Interspecific Competition Influences the Niche of a Species	272	(3)
Coexistence of Species Often Involves Partitioning Available Resources	275	(3)
Ecological Issues | Providing a Competitive Edge: Weed Control in Agriculture	278	(1)
Competition Can Influence Natural Selection	278	(2)
Competition Is a Complex Interaction Involving Both Biotic and Abiotic Factors	280	(3)
Summary	281	(1)
Study Questions	282	(1)
Further Readings	282	(1)
Predation	283	(28)
Predation Takes a Variety of Forms	284	(1)
Mathematical Model Describes the Basics of Predation	284	(1)
Model Suggests Mutual Population Regulation	285	(1)
Functional Responses Relate Prey Consumed to Prey Density	286	(3)
Predators Respond Numerically to Changing Prey Density	289	(2)
Foraging Involves Decisions Regarding the Allocation of Time and Energy	291	(1)
Foragers Seek Productive Food Patches	292	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 14.1 A Simple Model of Optimal Foraging	294	(1)
Risk of Predation Can Influence Foraging Behavior	294	(1)
Coevolution Can Occur Between Predator and Prey	295	(1)
Animal Prey Have Evolved Defenses Against Predators	296	(6)
Researcher Profile | Rick A. Relyea	300	(2)
Predators Have Evolved Efficient Hunting Tactics	302	(1)
Herbivores Prey on Plants	303	(2)
Ecological Issues | Grazing in the West	304	(1)
Plants Defend Themselves from Herbivores	305	(1)
Plants, Herbivores, and Carnivores Interact	306	(1)
Predators Influence Prey Dynamics Through Both Lethal and Nonlethal Effects	307	(4)
Summary	308	(2)
Study Questions	310	(1)
Further Readings	310	(1)
Parasitism and Mutualism	311	(21)
Parasites Draw Resources from Host Organisms	312	(1)
Hosts Provide Diverse Habitats for Parasites	312	(1)
Direct Transmission Can Occur Between Host Organisms	312	(1)
Transmission Between Hosts Can Involve an Intermediate Vector	313	(1)
Transmission Can Involve Multiple Hosts and Stages	313	(1)
Hosts Respond to Parasitic Invasions	314	(2)
Parasites Can Impact Host Survival and Reproduction	316	(1)
Parasites May Regulate Host Populations	316	(3)
Ecological Issues | Plagues Upon Us	318	(1)
Parasitism Can Evolve into a Positive Relationship	319	(1)
Symbiotic Mutualisms Are Involved in the Transfer of Nutrients	320	(4)
Researcher Profile | John J. Stachowicz	322	(2)
Some Symbiotic Mutualisms Are Defensive	324	(1)
Mutualisms May Be Nonsymbiotic	325	(1)
Mutualisms Are Often Necessary for Pollination	325	(1)
Quantifying Ecology 15.1 A Model of Mutualistic Interactions
Mutualisms Are Involved in Seed Dispersal	326	(3)
Mutualism Can Influence Population Dynamics	329	(3)
Summary	330	(1)
Study Questions	331	(1)
Further Readings	331	(1)
Part Six Community Ecology	332	(92)
Community Structure	334	(19)
The Number of Species and Their Relative Abundance Define Diversity	335	(2)
Numerical Supremacy Defines Dominance	337	(1)
Keystone Species Have an Influence on Community Structure Disproportionate to Their Numbers	337	(3)
Ecological Issues | Measuring Biological Diversity	338	(2)
Food Webs Describe Species Interactions	340	(2)
Species Within a Community Can Be Classified into Functional Groups	342	(1)
Communities Have a Definitive Physical Structure	342	(2)
Zonation Is Spatial Change in Community Structure	344	(2)
Defining Boundaries Between Communities Is Often Difficult	346	(3)
Two Contrasting Views of the Community	349	(4)
Quantifying Ecology 16.1 Community Similarits	350	(1)
Summary	351	(1)
Study Questions	352	(1)
Further Readings	352	(1)
Factors Influencing the Structure of Communities	353	(20)
The Fundamental Niche Constrains Community Structure	354	(1)
Species Interactions Are Diffuse	355	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 17.1 Quantifying the Structure of Food Webs: Connectance	356	(1)
Food Webs Illustrate Indirect Interactions	357	(3)
Food Webs Suggest Controls of Community Structure	360	(2)
Ecological Issues | Rivets or Redundancy	362	(1)
Species Interactions Along Environmental Gradients Involve Both Stress Tolerance and Competition	362	(3)
Environmental Heterogeneity Influences Community Diversity	365	(4)
Researcher Profile | Sally D. Hacker	366	(3)
Resource Availability Can Influence Plant Diversity Within a Community	369	(4)
Summary	370	(1)
Study Questions	371	(1)
Further Readings	371	(2)
Community Dynamics	373	(25)
Community Structure Changes Through Time	374	(4)
Ecological Issues | American Forests	376	(2)
Primary Succession Occurs on Newly Exposed Substrates	378	(2)
Secondary Succession Occurs After Disturbances	380	(2)
The Study of Succession Has a Rich History	382	(1)
Succession Is Associated with Autogenic Changes in Environmental Conditions	382	(4)
Quantifying Ecology 18.1 Quantifying Succession: Turnover Rates	384	(2)
Species Diversity Changes During Succession	386	(2)
Succession Involves Heterotrophic Species	388	(1)
Systematic Changes in Community Structure Occur as a Result of Allogenic Environmental Change at a Variety of Timescales	389	(1)
Community Structure Changes Over Geologic Time	390	(1)
The Concept of Community Revisited	391	(7)
Summary	395	(1)
Study Questions	396	(1)
Further Readings	397	(1)
Landscape Ecology	398	(26)
Environmental Processes Create a Variety of Patches in the Landscape	399	(2)
Transition Zones Offer Diverse Conditions and Habitats	401	(3)
Quantifying Ecology 19.1 Geographic Information Systems	402	(2)
Patch Size and Shape Are Crucial to Species Diversity	404	(4)
The Theory of Island Biogeography Applies to Landscape Patches	408	(2)
In Fragmented Landscapes, Corridors Permit Movement Between Patches	410	(1)
Metapopulation is a Central Concept in the Study of Landscape Dynamics	411	(1)
Frequency, Intensity, and Scale Determine the Impact of Disturbances	411	(4)
Researcher Profile | Nick M. Haddad	412	(3)
Various Natural Processes Function as Disturbances	415	(4)
Ecological Issues | The Yellowstone Fires of 1988	416	(3)
Human Disturbance Creates Some of the Most Long-Lasting Effects	419	(1)
The Landscape Represents a Shifting Mosaic of Changing Communities	420	(4)
Summary	421	(1)
Study Questions	422	(1)
Further Readings	422	(2)
Part Seven Ecosystem Ecology	424	(70)
Ecosystem Energetics	426	(24)
The Laws of Thermodynamics Govern Energy Flow	427	(1)
Energy Fixed in the Process of Photosynthesis Is Primary Production	427	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 20.1 | Estimating Net Primary Productivity using Satellite Data	428	(1)
Temperature, Water, and Nutrients Control Primary Production in Terrestrial Ecosystems	429	(4)
Temperature, Light, and Nutrients Control Primary Production in Aquatic Ecosystems	433	(2)
Energy Allocation and Plant Life Influence Primary Production	435	(1)
Primary Production Varies with Time	436	(1)
Primary Productivity Limits Secondary Production	436	(3)
Consumers Vary in Efficiency of Production	439	(1)
Ecosystems Have Two Major Food Chains	439	(5)
Researcher Profile | Brian Silliman	440	(2)
Ecological Issues | Human Appropriation of Net Primary Productivity	442	(2)
Energy Flows Through Trophic Levels Can Be Quantified	444	(1)
Consumption Efficiency Determines the Pathway of Energy Flow Through the Ecosystem	445	(2)
Energy Decreases in Each Successive Trophic Level	447	(3)
Summary	448	(1)
Study Questions	449	(1)
Further Readings	449	(1)
Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling	450	(24)
Most Essential Nutrients Are Recycled Within the Ecosystem	451	(1)
Decomposition Is a Complex Process Involving a Variety of Organisms	452	(2)
Studying Decomposition Involves Following the Fate of Dead Organic Matter	454	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 21.1 Estimating the Rate of Decomposition	455	(1)
A Number of Factors Influence the Rate of Decomposition	456	(5)
Researcher Profile | Edward A. G. (Ted) Schuur	458	(3)
Nutrients in Organic Matter Are Mineralized During Decomposition	461	(1)
Decomposition Occurs in Aquatic Environments	462	(1)
Key Ecosystem Processes Influence the Rate of Nutrient Cycling	463	(3)
Ecological Issues | Nitrogen Fertilizers	464	(2)
Nutrient Cycling Differs Between Terrestrial and Open-Water Aquatic Ecosystems	466	(2)
Water Flow Influences Nutrient Cycling in Streams and Rivers	468	(1)
Land and Marine Environments Influence Nutrient Cycling in Coastal Ecosystems	469	(2)
Surface Ocean Currents Bring About Vertical Transport of Nutrients	471	(3)
Summary	471	(2)
Study Questions	473	(1)
Further Readings	473	(1)
Biogeochemical Cycles	474	(20)
There Are Two Major Types of Biogeochemical Cycles	475	(1)
Nutrients Enter the Ecosystem via Inputs	475	(1)
Quantifying Ecology 22.1 Quantifying Biogeochemical Cycles: Pools and Fluxes	476	(1)
Outputs Represent a Loss of Nutrients from the Ecosystem	476	(2)
Biogeochemical Cycles Can Be Viewed from a Global Perspective	478	(1)
The Carbon Cycle Is Closely Tied to Energy Flow	478	(2)
The Cycling of Carbon Varies Daily and Seasonally	480	(1)
The Global Carbon Cycle Involves Exchanges Among the Atmosphere, Oceans, and Land	480	(3)
The Nitrogen Cycle Begins with Fixing Atmospheric Nitrogen	483	(2)
The Phosphorus Cycle Has No Atmospheric Pool	485	(3)
Ecological Issues | Nitrogen Saturation	486	(2)
The Sulfur Cycle Is Both Sedimentary and Gaseous	488	(1)
The Global Sulfur Cycle Is Poorly Understood	489	(1)
The Oxygen Cycle Is Largely Under Biological Control	489	(2)
The Various Biogeochemical Cycles Are Linked	491	(3)
Summary	492	(1)
Study Questions	493	(1)
Further Readings	493	(1)
Part Eight Biogeographical Ecology	494	(82)
Terrestrial Ecosystems	496	(27)
Terrestrial Ecosystems Reflect Adaptations of the Dominant Plant Life Forms	497	(2)
Tropical Forests Characterize the Equatorial Zone	499	(4)
Tropical Savannas Are Characteristic of the Semiarid Regions with Seasonal Rainfall	503	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 23.1 Climate Diagrams	504	(1)
Deserts Represent a Diverse Group of Ecosystems	505	(3)
Mediterranean Climates Support Temperate Shrublands	508	(3)
Forest Ecosystems Dominate the Wetter Regions of the Temperate Zone	511	(2)
Grassland Ecosystems of the Temperate Zone Vary with Climate and Geography	513	(2)
Conifer Forests Dominate the Cool Temperate and Boreal Zones	515	(3)
Low Precipitation and Cold Temperatures Define the Arctic Tundra	518	(5)
Summary	520	(2)
Study Questions	522	(1)
Further Readings	522	(1)
Aquatic Ecosystems	523	(24)
Lakes Have Many Origins	524	(2)
Lakes Have Well-Defined Physical Characteristics	526	(1)
The Nature of Life Varies in the Different Zones	526	(3)
Ecological Issues | Dams Regulating the Flow of River Ecosystems	528	(1)
The Character of a Lake Reflects Its Surrounding Landscape	529	(1)
Flowing-Water Ecosystems Vary in Structure and Types of Habitats	530	(3)
Quantifying Ecology 24.1 Stream flow	532	(1)
Life Is Highly Adapted to Flowing Water	533	(2)
The Flowing-Water Ecosystem Is a Continuum of Changing Environments	535	(2)
Rivers Flow into the Sea, Forming Estuaries	537	(1)
Oceans Exhibit Zonation and Stratification	538	(1)
Pelagic Communities Vary Among the Vertical Zones	538	(2)
Benthos Is a World of Its Own	540	(1)
Coral Reefs Are Complex Ecosystems Built by Colonies of Coral Animals	541	(2)
Productivity of the Oceans Is Governed by Light and Nutrients	543	(4)
Summary	544	(1)
Study Questions	545	(1)
Further Readings	545	(2)
Land-Water Margins	547	(17)
The Intertidal Zone Is the Transition Between Terrestrial and Marine Environments	548	(1)
Rocky Shorelines Have a Distinct Pattern of Zonation	549	(1)
Sandy and Muddy Shores Are Harsh Environments	550	(2)
Tides and Salinity Dictate the Structure of Salt Marshes	552	(2)
Mangroves Replace Salt Marshes in Tropical Regions	554	(1)
Freshwater Wetlands Are a Diverse Group of Ecosystems	555	(3)
Hydrology Defines the Structure of Freshwater Wetlands	558	(2)
Ecological Issues | The Continuing Decline of Wetlands	560	(1)
Freshwater Wetlands Support a Rich Diversity of Life	560	(4)
Summary	562	(1)
Study Questions	562	(1)
Further Readings	563	(1)
Large-Scale Patterns of Biological Diversity	564	(12)
Earth's Biological Diversity Has Changed Through Geologic Time	565	(1)
Past Extinctions Have Been Clustered in Time	566	(1)
Regional and Global Patterns of Species Diversity Vary Geographically	567	(1)
Species Richness in Terrestrial Ecosystems Correlates with Climate and Productivity	568	(2)
In Marine Environments, There Is an Inverse Relationship Between Productivity and Diversity	570	(1)
Species Diversity Is a Function of Processes Operating at Many Scales	571	(5)
Quantifying Ecology 26.1 Quantifying Biodiversity: Comparing Species Richness Using Rarefaction Curves	572	(2)
Summary	574	(1)
Study Questions	574	(1)
Further Readings	574	(2)
Part Nine Human Ecology	576
Population Growth, Resource Use, and Sustainability	578	(29)
Sustainable Resource Use Is a Balance Between Supply and Demand	580	(2)
Sustainability Can Be Indirectly Limited by Adverse Consequences of Resource Use	582	(1)
Sustainability Is a Concept Learned from Natural Ecosystems	582	(1)
Agricultural Practices Vary in the Level of Energy Input	583	(1)
Swidden Agriculture Represents a Dominant Form of Agriculture in the Wet Tropics	583	(2)
Industrialized Agriculture Dominates the Temperate Zone	585	(1)
Different Agricultural Methods Represent a Trade-off Between Sustainability and Productivity	586	(2)
Sustainable Agriculture Depends on a Variety of Methods	588	(2)
Ecological Issues | Insect Wars	590	(1)
The Goal of Sustainable Forestry Is to Achieve a Balance Between Net Growth and Harvest	590	(5)
Exploitation of Fisheries Has Led to the Need for Management	595	(4)
Researcher Profile | Deborah Lawrence	596	(3)
Fisheries Management Requires an Ecosystem Approach	599	(4)
Quantifying Ecology 27.1 Maximum Sustainable Yield	600	(2)
Quantifying Ecology 27.2 Discounting the Future	602	(1)
Economics Are a Key Factor Governing Resource Management	603	(4)
Summary	605	(1)
Study Questions	606	(1)
Further Readings	606	(1)
Habitat Loss, Biodiversity, and Conservation	607	(24)
The Destruction of Habitat is the Leading Cause of Current Species Extinctions	608	(3)
Human-Introduced Exotic Species Pose a Threat to Many Native Species	611	(1)
Species Differ in Their Susceptibility to Extinction	612	(1)
The Identification of Threatened Species Is Critical to Conservation Efforts	613	(4)
Ecological Issues | The Wolves of Yellowstone National Park	614	(1)
Quantifying Ecology 28.1 Demographic Stochasticity and Probability of Extinction	615	(1)
Ecological Issues | Endangered Species--Endangered Legislation	616	(1)
Regions of High Species Diversity Are Particularly Important to Conservation Efforts	617	(1)
Protecting Populations Is the Key to Conservation Efforts	618	(3)
Quantifying Ecology 28.2 Effective Population Size	620	(1)
For Some Species, Reestablishment of Populations Through Reintroduction Is Necessary	621	(2)
Habitat Conservation Functions to Protect Whole Communities	623	(1)
Habitat Conservation Involves the Establishment of Protected Areas	623	(4)
Habitat Restoration Is Often Necessary in Conservation Effort	627	(1)
Environmental Ethics Is at the Core of Conservation	628	(3)
Summary	629	(1)
Study Questions	630	(1)
Further Readings	630	(1)
Global Climate Change	631
Greenhouse Gases Influence Earth's Energy Balance and Climate	632	(1)
Atmospheric Concentration of Carbon Dioxide is Rising	632	(2)
Tracking the Fate of CO2 Emissions	634	(1)
Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations Affect CO2 Uptake by Oceans	634	(1)
Plants Respond to Increased Atmospheric CO2	635	(2)
Greenhouse Gases are Changing the Global Climate	637	(3)
Quantifying Ecology 29.1 Detecting Trends	640	(1)
Changes in Climate Will Affect Ecosystems at Many Levels	640	(6)
Ecological Issues | Who Turned Up the Heat?	646	(1)
Changing Climate Will Shift the Global Distribution of Ecosystems	646	(2)
Global Warming Would Raise Sea Level and Affect Coastal Environments	648	(2)
Climate Change Will Affect Agricultural Production	650	(2)
Climate Change Will Both Directly and Indirectly Affect Human Health	652	(4)
Researcher Profile | Erika Zavaleta	654	(2)
Understanding Global Change Requires the Study of Ecology at a Global Scale	656
Summary	657	(1)
Study Questions	658	(1)
Further Readings	658
References	1	(1)
Glossary	1	(1)
Credits	1	(1)
Index	1