Environmental Geology

by Montgomery, Carla W.

• ISBN13: 9780073040820
• ISBN10: 0073040827
• Edition: 7th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-01-07
• Publisher: McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math

Summary

Intended for the introductory-level college course, the principal aim of this text is to present the student with a broad overview of environmental geology. The text looks both at how the earth developed into its present condition and where matters seem to be moving for the future. It is hoped that this knowledge will provide the student with a useful foundation for discussing and evaluating specific environmental issues, as well as for developing ideas about how the problems should be solved.

Table of Contents

SECTION ONE Foundations
An Overview of Our Planetary Environment	2	(21)
Earth in Space and Time	3	(5)
The Early Solar System	3	(1)
The Planets	3	(2)
Earth, Then and Now	5	(1)
Life on Earth	6	(2)
Geology, Past and Present	8	(4)
The Geologic Perspective	8	(1)
Geology and the Scientific Method	8	(1)
The Motivation to Find Answers	9	(2)
Wheels Within Wheels: Earth Cycles and Systems	11	(1)
Nature and Rate of Population Growth	12	(2)
Growth Rates: Causes and Consequences	13	(1)
Growth Rate and Doubling Time	14	(1)
Impacts of the Human Population	14	(9)
Farmland and Food Supply	14	(1)
Population and Nonfood Resources	15	(2)
Uneven Distribution of People and Resources	17	(1)
Disruption of Natural Systems	17	(1)
Is Extraterrestrial Colonization a Solution?	18	(1)
Reality in Round Numbers	19	(1)
Summary	20	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	20	(1)
Exercises	20	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	21	(1)
Netnotes	21	(2)
Rocks and Minerals---A First Look	23	(20)
Atoms, Elements, Isotopes, Ions, and Compounds	24	(1)
Atomic Structure	24	(1)
Elements and Isotopes	24	(1)
Ions	24	(1)
Compounds	24	(1)
The Periodic Table	25	(1)
Minerals---General	26	(3)
Minerals Defined	26	(1)
Identifying Characteristics of Minerals	26	(1)
Other Physical Properties of Minerals	26	(3)
Types of Minerals	29	(3)
Silicates	29	(1)
Nonsilicates	30	(2)
Rocks	32	(11)
Asbestos---A Case of Risky Business?	33	(1)
Igneous Rocks	34	(1)
Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks	34	(2)
Metamorphic Rocks	36	(3)
The Rock Cycle Revisited	39	(1)
Summary	39	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	40	(1)
Exercises	40	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	40	(1)
Netnotes	41	(2)
SECTION TWO Internal Processes
Plate Tectonics	43	(21)
Plate Tectonics---General Principles	44	(3)
Stress and Strain in Geologic Materials	44	(1)
Lithosphere and Asthenosphere	45	(1)
Locating Plate Boundaries	45	(2)
Plate Movements---Accumulating Evidence	47	(7)
The Topography of the Sea Floor	47	(1)
Magnetism in Rocks---General	47	(3)
Paleomagnetism and Seafloor Spreading	50	(1)
Age of the Ocean Floor	50	(1)
Polar-Wander Curves	51	(2)
Other Evidence	53	(1)
Types of Plate Boundaries	54	(4)
Divergent Plate Boundaries	54	(2)
Transform Boundaries	56	(1)
Convergent Plate Boundaries	56	(2)
How Far, How Fast, How Long, How Come?	58	(6)
Past Motions, Present Velocities	58	(1)
Why Do Plates Move?	58	(2)
Subduction Zones---Disposal Zones?	60	(1)
History of Plate Tectonics	61	(1)
Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle	61	(1)
Summary	62	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts'	62	(1)
Exercises	62	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	63	(1)
Netnotes	63	(1)
Earthquakes	64	(28)
Earthquakes---Basic Theory	67	(1)
Basic Terms	67	(1)
Earthquake Locations	68	(1)
Seismic Waves and Earthquake Severity	68	(4)
Seismic Waves	68	(1)
Locating the Epicenter	69	(1)
Magnitude and Intensity	69	(3)
Earthquake-Related Hazards and Their Reduction	72	(6)
Ground Motion	72	(4)
Ground Failure	76	(1)
Tsunamis and Coastal Effects	77	(1)
Fire	77	(1)
Earthquake Prediction and Forecasting	78	(4)
Seismic Gaps	78	(1)
Earthquake Precursors and Prediction	79	(1)
Current Status of Earthquake Prediction	79	(1)
The Earthquake Cycle and Forecasting	80	(2)
Earthquake Control?	82	(1)
Earthquake Awareness, Public Response	82	(2)
Concerns Related to Predictions	82	(1)
``Earthquake-Proof'' Buildings?	83	(1)
Public Response to Earthquake Hazards	84	(1)
Further Thoughts on Modern and Future U.S. and Canadian Earthquakes	84	(8)
Areas of Widely Recognized Risk	84	(2)
Other Potential Problem Areas	86	(3)
Summary	89	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	89	(1)
Exercises	89	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	90	(1)
Netnotes	90	(2)
Volcanoes	92	(29)
Magma Sources and Types	93	(2)
Kinds and Locations of Volcanic Activity	95	(5)
Individual Volcanoes---Locations	95	(1)
Seafloor Spreading Ridges, Fissure Eruptions	95	(2)
Shield Volcanoes	97	(1)
Volcanic Domes	97	(1)
Cinder Cones	97	(3)
Composite Volcanoes	100	(1)
Hazards Related to Volcanoes	100	(8)
Lava	100	(2)
Pyroclastics	102	(1)
Lahars	103	(1)
Pyroclastic Flows---Nuees Ardentes	104	(1)
Toxic Gases	105	(1)
Steam Explosions	106	(1)
Secondary Effects: Climate and Atmospheric Chemistry	107	(1)
Issues in Predicting Volcanic Eruptions	108	(3)
Classification of Volcanoes by Activity	108	(1)
Volcanic Precursors	108	(2)
Response to Eruption Predictions	110	(1)
Present and Future Volcanic Hazards in the United States	111	(10)
Hawaii	111	(1)
Cascade Range	111	(1)
A Case of Degrees of Risk: Life on a Volcano's Flank	112	(3)
The Aleutians	115	(1)
Long Valley and Yellowstone Calderas	116	(2)
Summary	118	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	118	(1)
Exercises	118	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	118	(1)
Netnotes	119	(2)
SECTION THREE Surface Processes
Streams and Flooding	121	(25)
The Hydrologic Cycle	122	(1)
Streams and Their Features	123	(4)
Streams---General	123	(1)
Sediment Transport	123	(1)
Velocity, Gradient, and Base Level	124	(1)
Velocity and Sediment Sorting and Deposition	125	(1)
Channel and Floodplain Evolution	125	(2)
Flooding	127	(7)
Factors Governing Flood Severity	127	(1)
Flood Characteristics	128	(1)
Stream Hydrographs	129	(1)
Flood-Frequency Curves	130	(2)
How Big Is the One Hundred-Year Flood?	132	(2)
Consequences of Development in Floodplains	134	(2)
Reasons for Floodplain Occupation	134	(1)
Effects of Development on Flood Hazards	135	(1)
Strategies for Reducing Flood Hazards	136	(10)
Restrictive Zoning and ``Floodproofing''	136	(1)
Retention Ponds, Diversion Channels	137	(1)
Channelization	137	(1)
Levees	138	(1)
Life on the Mississippi: A Case for More Levees?	139	(1)
Flood-Control Dams and Reservoirs	140	(1)
Flood Warnings?	141	(2)
Summary	143	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	143	(1)
Exercises	144	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	144	(1)
Netnotes	145	(1)
Coastal Zones and Processes	146	(23)
Nature of the Coastline	147	(5)
Waves and Tides	148	(1)
Sediment Transport and Deposition	149	(1)
Storms and Coastal Dynamics	150	(2)
Emergent and Submergent Coastlines	152	(2)
Causes of Long-Term Sea-Level Change	152	(1)
Signs of Changing Relative Sea Level	153	(1)
Present and Future Sea-Level Trends	154	(1)
Coastal Erosion and ``Stabilization''	154	(6)
Beach Erosion, Protection, and Restoration	156	(2)
Cliff Erosion	158	(2)
Especially Difficult Coastal Environments	160	(9)
Barrier Islands	160	(1)
Estuaries	161	(1)
Costs of Construction---and Reconstruction---in High-Energy Environments	162	(1)
Recognition of Coastal Hazards	163	(1)
The Great Lakes---A Case of Controllable Coastline?	164	(2)
Summary	166	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	166	(1)
Exercises	167	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	167	(1)
Netnotes	168	(1)
Mass Movements	169	(24)
Factors Influencing Slope Stability	170	(4)
Effects of Slope and Materials	170	(1)
Effects of Fluid	171	(2)
Effects of Vegetation	173	(1)
Earthquakes	173	(1)
Quick Clays	174	(1)
Types of Mass Wasting	174	(4)
Falls	174	(1)
Slumps and Slides	175	(1)
Flows and Avalanches	176	(1)
Scales and Rates of Movements	177	(1)
Consequences of Mass Movements	178	(4)
Impact of Human Activities	178	(2)
A Compounding of Problems on the Venezuelan Coast	180	(2)
A Case of a Failed Dam that Didn't: The Vaiont Dam	182	(1)
Possible Preventive Measures	182	(11)
Slope Reduction	183	(1)
Retention Structures	183	(1)
Fluid Removal	184	(2)
Other Slope-Stabilization Measures	186	(1)
Recognizing the Hazards	187	(1)
Landslide Warnings?	188	(3)
Summary	191	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	191	(1)
Exercises	191	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	191	(1)
Netnotes	192	(1)
Geology and Climate: Glaciers, Deserts, and Global Climate Trends	193	(35)
Glaciers and Glacial Features	194	(6)
Glacier Formation	194	(1)
Types of Glaciers	195	(1)
Movement and Change of Glaciers	196	(1)
Glacial Erosion and Deposition	197	(3)
Glaciers as a Water Source	200	(1)
Wind and Its Geologic Impacts	200	(5)
Wind Erosion	201	(2)
Wind Deposition	203	(1)
Dune Migration	203	(1)
Loess	203	(2)
Deserts and Desertification	205	(3)
Causes of Natural Deserts	205	(1)
Desertification	206	(1)
Causes of Desertification	207	(1)
Desertification in the United States	207	(1)
Global Impact of Desertification	208	(1)
Global Climate, Past and Present	208	(4)
Evidence of Climates Past	208	(2)
Ice Ages and Their Possible Causes	210	(2)
Climate, Present and Future	212	(12)
The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming	212	(2)
Climate Change Is More Than Global Warming	214	(2)
Winds and Currents, Climate and Commerce: El Nino	216	(2)
Climate---Blowing Hot and Cold	218	(2)
Summary	220	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	221	(1)
Exercises	221	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	222	(1)
Net Notes	222	(2)
SECTION FOUR Resources
Resources, People, and Standards of Living	224	(1)
Projection of Resource Supply and Demand	225	(3)
Water as a Resource	228	(30)
Fluid Storage and Mobility: Porosity and Permeability	229	(2)
Aquifer Geometry and Groundwater Flow	231	(2)
Confined and Unconfined Aquifers	231	(1)
Darcy's Law and Groundwater Flow	232	(1)
Other Factors in Water Availability	232	(1)
Consequences of Groundwater Withdrawal	233	(2)
Lowering the Water Table	233	(1)
Compaction and Surface Subsidence	233	(2)
Saltwater Intrusion	235	(1)
Other Impacts of Urbanization on Groundwater Systems	235	(3)
Loss of Recharge	235	(2)
Artificial Recharge	237	(1)
Other Features Involving Subsurface Water	238	(2)
Karst	238	(1)
Sinkholes	238	(2)
Water Quality	240	(3)
Measures of Water Quality	240	(1)
Hard Water	241	(1)
What's in the Water?	242	(1)
Water Use, Water Supply	243	(5)
General U.S. Water Use	243	(1)
Surface Water versus Ground Water as Supply	243	(2)
Regional Variations in Water Use	245	(3)
Case Studies in Water Consumption	248	(10)
The Colorado River Basin	249	(1)
The High Plains (Ogallala) Aquifer System	250	(1)
The Aral Sea	251	(1)
Lake Chad	251	(2)
Extending the Water Supply	253	(1)
Conservation	253	(1)
Interbasin Water Transfer	254	(1)
Desalination	255	(1)
Summary	256	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	256	(1)
Exercises	256	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	257	(1)
Netnotes	257	(1)
Soil as a Resource	258	(22)
Soil Formation	259	(3)
Soil-Forming Processes: Weathering	259	(1)
Soil Profiles, Soil Horizons	260	(2)
Chemical and Physical Properties of Soils	262	(3)
Color, Texture, and Structure of Soils	262	(1)
Soil Classification	263	(2)
Soils and Human Activities	265	(15)
Lateritic Soil	265	(1)
Wetland Soils	266	(1)
Soil Erosion	267	(1)
Soil Erosion versus Soil Formation	268	(2)
Strategies for Reducing Erosion	270	(3)
Irrigation and Soil Chemistry	273	(1)
The Soil Resource---The Global View	274	(3)
Plantations in Paradise: A Case of Secondary Consequences	277	(1)
Summary	278	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	278	(1)
Exercises	278	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	279	(1)
Netnotes	279	(1)
Mineral and Rock Resources	280	(26)
Ore Deposits	281	(1)
Definition	281	(1)
Distribution	281	(1)
Types of Mineral Deposits	281	(6)
Igneous Rocks and Magmatic Deposits	281	(2)
Hydrothermal Ores	283	(1)
Relationship to Plate Margins	283	(3)
Sedimentary Deposits	286	(1)
Other Low-Temperature Ore-Forming Processes	286	(1)
Metamorphic Deposits	287	(1)
Mineral and Rock Resources---Examples	287	(2)
Metals	287	(1)
Nonmetallic Minerals	288	(1)
Rock Resources	289	(1)
Mineral Supply and Demand	289	(4)
U.S. Mineral Production and Consumption	289	(3)
World Mineral Supply and Demand	292	(1)
Minerals for the Future: Some Options Considered	293	(6)
New Methods in Mineral Exploration	293	(3)
Marine Mineral Resources	296	(1)
Conservation of Mineral Resources	297	(2)
What's in a 12-Ounce Can?	299	(1)
Impacts of Mining Activities	299	(7)
Underground Mines	300	(1)
Surface Mines	300	(2)
Mineral Processing	302	(1)
Summary	303	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	304	(1)
Exercises	304	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	304	(1)
Netnotes	305	(1)
Energy Resources---Fossil Fuels	306	(24)
Oil and Natural Gas	308	(2)
Formation of Oil and Gas Deposits	308	(1)
Oil and Gas Migration	309	(1)
The Time Factor	309	(1)
Supply and Demand for Oil and Natural Gas	310	(7)
Oil	310	(1)
U.S. Oil Supplies	310	(1)
Natural Gas	311	(2)
A Case of Conflicting Priorities: The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge---To Drill or Not to Drill?	313	(1)
Future Prospects	314	(1)
Enhanced Oil Recovery	314	(1)
Alternate National Gas Sources	314	(2)
Conservation	316	(1)
Oil Spills	317	(2)
Coal	319	(3)
Formation of Coal Deposits	319	(1)
Energy Prices, Energy Uses	320	(1)
Coal Reserves and Resources	321	(1)
Limitations on Coal Use	321	(1)
Gasification	321	(1)
Liquefaction	322	(1)
Environmental Impacts of Coal Use	322	(4)
Sulfur in Coal	322	(1)
Ash	322	(1)
Coal-Mining Hazards and Environmental Impacts	323	(3)
Oil Shale	326	(1)
Tar Sand	327	(3)
Summary	328	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	328	(1)
Exercises	328	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	329	(1)
Netnotes	329	(1)
Energy Resources---Alternative Sources	330	(31)
Nuclear Power---Fission	332	(7)
Fission---Basic Principles	332	(1)
The Geology of Uranium Deposits	333	(1)
Extending the Nuclear Fuel Supply	333	(1)
Concerns Related to Nuclear Reactor Safety	334	(1)
Concerns Related to Fuel Handling	335	(1)
Radioactive Wastes	335	(1)
The Case of the Crisis at Chernobyl	336	(1)
Risk Assessment, Risk Projection	337	(2)
Nuclear Power---Fusion	339	(1)
Solar Energy	340	(4)
Solar Heating	341	(1)
Solar Electricity	342	(1)
Potential Environmental Impacts of Large-Scale Commitment to Solar Electricity	342	(1)
Solar Energy Summary	342	(2)
Geothermal Power	344	(3)
The Geothermal Resource	344	(1)
Applications of Geothermal Energy	344	(1)
Environmental Considerations of Geothermal Power	345	(1)
Limitations on Geothermal Power	345	(1)
Alternative Geothermal Sources	346	(1)
Summary of Geothermal Potential	347	(1)
Hydropower	347	(3)
Limitations on Hydropower Development	349	(1)
Tidal Power	350	(1)
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion	350	(1)
Wind Energy	350	(2)
Biomass	352	(9)
Alcohol as Fuel	352	(1)
Electricity's Hidden Costs	353	(1)
Biogas	354	(1)
Summary	354	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	355	(1)
Exercises	355	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	356	(1)
Netnotes	356	(5)
SECTION FIVE Waste Disposal, Pollution, and Health
Waste Disposal	361	(32)
Solid Wastes---General	362	(1)
Municipal Waste Disposal	362	(6)
Open Dumps	363	(1)
Sanitary Landfills	363	(2)
Incineration	365	(2)
Ocean Dumping	367	(1)
Reducing Waste Volume	368	(4)
Handling (Nontoxic) Organic Matter	369	(1)
Recycling	369	(2)
Other Options	371	(1)
Liquid-Waste Disposal	372	(3)
Secure Landfills	373	(1)
Deep-Well Disposal	373	(1)
Other Strategies	374	(1)
Decisions, Decisions . . .	375	(1)
Sewage Treatment	375	(4)
Septic Systems	375	(2)
Municipal Sewage Treatment	377	(2)
The Ghost of Toxins Past: Superfund	379	(1)
Radioactive Wastes	380	(13)
Radioactive Decay	380	(1)
Effects of Radiation	381	(1)
Nature of Radioactive Wastes	382	(1)
Historical Suggestions: Space, Ice, and Plate Tectonics	383	(1)
Seabed Disposal	383	(1)
Bedrock Caverns for Liquid Waste	384	(1)
Bedrock Disposal of Solid High-Level Wastes	385	(2)
Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP)	387	(1)
The Long Road to Yucca Mountain	387	(2)
No High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Yet	389	(1)
Summary	390	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	390	(1)
Exercises	390	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	391	(1)
Netnotes	391	(2)
Water Pollution	393	(30)
General Principles	394	(2)
Geochemical Cycles	394	(1)
Residence Time	394	(1)
Residence Time and Pollution	395	(1)
Point and Nonpoint Pollution Sources	396	(1)
Organic Matter	396	(4)
Nature and Impacts	396	(1)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand	397	(1)
Eutrophication	397	(2)
Clogging with Kindness?	399	(1)
Industrial Pollution	400	(7)
Inorganic Pollutants---Metals	400	(1)
Other Inorganic Pollutants	401	(1)
Mercury, the Once and Future Toxin?	402	(1)
Organic Compounds	403	(1)
Problems of Control	404	(3)
Thermal Pollution	407	(1)
Agricultural Pollution	407	(3)
Fertilizers and Organic Waste	407	(1)
Sediment Pollution	407	(2)
Herbicides and Pesticides	409	(1)
Reversing the Damage---Surface Water	410	(2)
Dredging	410	(1)
Physical Isolation or Chemical Treatment of Sediments	411	(1)
Decontamination; Aeration	412	(1)
Groundwater Pollution	412	(3)
The Surface---Ground Water Connection Explored	412	(3)
Tracing Pollution's Path	415	(1)
Reversing the Damage---Ground Water	415	(2)
Decontamination After Extraction	415	(1)
Damage Control by Containment---The Rocky Mountain Arsenal	416	(1)
In Situ Decontamination	417	(1)
New Technology Meets Problems from the Past: California Gulch Superfund Site, Leadville, Colorado	417	(6)
Summary	420	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	421	(1)
Exercises	421	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	421	(1)
Netnotes	422	(1)
Air Pollution	423	(27)
Atmospheric Chemistry---Cycles and Residence Times	424	(1)
Costs of Air Pollution	425	(1)
Types and Sources of Air Pollution	425	(11)
Particulates	425	(2)
Carbon Gases	427	(1)
Sulfur Gases	428	(1)
Nitrogen Gases and ``Smog Ozone''	428	(2)
The Ozone Layer and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)	430	(2)
Lead	432	(2)
Other Pollutants	434	(2)
Acid Rain	436	(5)
The Nature of Acid Rain	436	(2)
Indoor Air Pollution?	438	(1)
Regional Variations in Rainfall Acidity and Impacts	439	(2)
Air Pollution and Weather	441	(1)
Thermal Inversion	441	(1)
Impact on Weather	442	(1)
Toward Air-Pollution Control	442	(8)
Air-Quality Standards	442	(1)
Control Methods	443	(1)
Automobile Emissions	444	(1)
Cost and Effect	444	(3)
Summary	447	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	447	(1)
Exercises	447	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	448	(1)
Netnotes	448	(2)
SECTION SIX Other Related Topics
Environmental Law	450	(24)
Resource Law: Water	451	(1)
Surface-Water Law	451	(1)
Groundwater Law	452	(1)
Resource Law: Minerals and Fuels	452	(1)
Mineral Rights	452	(1)
Mine Reclamation	453	(1)
International Resource Disputes	453	(4)
Law of the Sea and Exclusive Economic Zones	454	(1)
Antarctica	455	(2)
Pollution and Its Control	457	(5)
A Clean Environment---By What Right?	457	(1)
Water Pollution	457	(1)
Air Pollution	457	(2)
Waste Disposal	459	(1)
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency	460	(1)
Defining Limits of Pollution	460	(1)
International Initiatives	461	(1)
Cost-Benefit Analysis	462	(2)
Problems of Quantification	462	(1)
Cost-Benefit Analysis and the Federal Government	463	(1)
Laws Relating to Geologic Hazards	464	(4)
Construction Controls	464	(1)
Other Responses to Earthquake Hazards	465	(1)
Flood Hazards, Flood Insurance	466	(1)
Problems with Geologic-Hazard Mitigation Laws	466	(1)
Floodplain? What Floodplain?	467	(1)
The National Environmental Policy Act (1969)	468	(6)
Impact Analysis and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline	469	(2)
EIS---When?	471	(1)
Summary	471	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	471	(1)
Exercises	471	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	472	(1)
Netnotes	472	(2)
Land-Use Planning and Engineering Geology	474	(23)
Land-Use Planning---Why?	475	(1)
Conversion of Rural Land	475	(1)
Some Considerations in Planning	475	(1)
Land-Use Options	476	(1)
Multiple Use	476	(1)
Sequential Use	476	(1)
The Federal Government and Land-Use Planning	477	(1)
Maps as a Planning Tool	478	(6)
Engineering Geology---Some Considerations	484	(4)
The Role of Testing and Scale Modeling	486	(2)
Case Histories, Old and New	488	(1)
The Leaning Tower of Pisa	488	(2)
The Panama Canal	488	(1)
Boston's ``Big Dig''	489	(1)
Dams, Failures, and Consequences	490	(1)
The St. Francis Dam	490	(7)
Other Examples and Construction Issues	491	(1)
Three Gorges Dam (It's Not Only About Safety)	492	(2)
How Green Is My---Golf Course?	494	(1)
Summary	495	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	495	(1)
Exercises	495	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	495	(1)
Netnotes	496	(1)
APPENDIX A Geologic Time, Geologic Process Rates	497	(8)
Introduction	497	(1)
Relative Dating	497	(2)
Arranging Events in Order	497	(1)
Correlation	498	(1)
Uniformitarianism	498	(1)
How Old Is the Earth?	499	(1)
Early Efforts	499	(1)
The Nineteenth-Century View	500	(1)
Radiometric Dating	500	(2)
The Discovery of Radioactivity	500	(1)
Radioactive Decay and Dating	500	(1)
Choice of an Isotopic System	500	(1)
Radiometric and Relative Ages Combined	501	(1)
The Geologic Time Scale	502	(1)
Geologic Process Rates	503	(2)
Examples of Rate Determination	503	(1)
The Danger of Extrapolation	503	(1)
Summary	503	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	503	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	504	(1)
Netnotes	504	(1)
APPENDIX B Introduction to Topographic and Geologic Maps and Remotely Sensed Imagery	505	(13)
Maps and Scale	505	(1)
Topographic Maps	505	(2)
Contour Lines, Contour Intervals	505	(1)
Other Features on Standard Topographic Maps	506	(1)
Geologic Maps	507	(3)
Basic Concepts Related to Geologic Maps	507	(1)
Interpretation from Geologic Maps---Examples	507	(3)
Cross Sections	510	(1)
Remote Sensing and Satellite Imagery	510	(8)
Satellite Images and Applications	511	(3)
Radar Imaging	514	(1)
Imaging Spectroscopy	515	(1)
Key Terms and Concepts	516	(1)
Suggested Readings/References	516	(1)
Netnotes	516	(2)
APPENDIX C Mineral and Rock Identification	518	(5)
Mineral Identification	518	(1)
A Note on Mineral Formulas	518	(1)
Rock Identification	519	(4)
Glossary	523	(7)
Index	530