Essential Cell Biology

by Alberts, Bruce; Bray, Dennis; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Robert, Keith; Walter, Peter

• ISBN13: 9780815320456
• ISBN10: 0815320450
• Edition: CD
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1997-07-01
• Publisher: Garland Science

Summary

A new entry-level survey of cell biology that makes teaching and learning easier than ever before

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction to Cells	1	(36)
Cells Under the Microscope	1	(8)
The Invention of the Light Microscope Led to the Discovery of Cells	2	(1)
Cells, Organelles, and Even Molecules Can Be Seen Under the Microscope	3	(6)
The Eucaryotic Cell	9	(8)
The Nucleus Is the Information Store of the Cell	9	(1)
Mitochondria Generate Energy from Food to Power the Cell	10	(2)
Chloroplasts Capture Energy from Sunlight	12	(1)
Internal Membranes Create Intracellular Compartments with Different Functions	13	(2)
The Cytosol Is a Concentrated Aqueous Gel of Large and Small Molecules	15	(1)
The Cytoskeleton Is Responsible for Cell Movements	16	(1)
Unity and Diversity of Cells	17	(17)
Cells Vary Enormously in Appearance and Function	19	(2)
Living Cells All Have a Similar Basic Chemistry	21	(1)
All Present-Day Cells Have Apparently Evolved from the Same Ancestor	21	(1)
Bacteria Are the Smallest and Simplest Cells	22	(3)
Molecular Biologists Have Focused on E. coli	25	(1)
Giardia May Represent an Intermediate Stage in the Evolution of Eucaryotic Cells	25	(1)
Brewer's Yeast Is a Simple Eucaryotic Cell	26	(1)
Single-celled Organisms Can Be Large, Complex, and Fierce: The Protozoans	27	(1)
Arabidopsis Has Been Chosen Out of 300,000 Species as a Model Plant	28	(1)
The World of Animals Is Represented by a Fly, a Worm, a Mouse, and Homo Sapiens	29	(2)
Cells in the Same Multicellular Organism Can Be Spectacularly Different	31	(3)
Essential Concepts	34	(1)
Questions	35	(2)
Chapter 2 Chemical Components of Cells	37	(42)
Chemical Bonds	37	(15)
Cells Are Made of Relatively Few Types of Atoms	38	(1)
The Outermost Electrons Determine How Atoms Interact	39	(3)
Ionic Bonds Form by the Gain and Loss of Electrons	42	(1)
Covalent Bonds Form by the Sharing of Electrons	43	(2)
There Are Different Types of Covalent Bonds	45	(3)
Water Is the Most Abundant Substance in Cells	48	(1)
Some Polar Molecules Form Acids and Bases in Water	49	(3)
Molecules in Cells	52	(21)
A Cell Is Formed from Carbon Compounds	52	(1)
Cells Contain Four Major Families of Small Organic Molecules	52	(1)
Sugars Are Energy Sources for Cells and Subunits of Polysaccharides	53	(2)
Fatty Acids Are Components of Cell Membranes	55	(5)
Amino Acids Are the Subunits of Proteins	60	(1)
Nucleotides Are the Subunits of DNA and RNA	61	(4)
Macromolecules Contain a Specific Sequence of Subunits	65	(4)
Noncovalent Bonds Specify the Precise Shape of a Macromolecule	69	(3)
Noncovalent Bonds Allow a Macromolecule to Bind Other Selected Molecules	72	(1)
Essential Concepts	73	(1)
Questions	74	(5)
Chapter 3 Energy, Catalysis, and Biosynthesis	79	(29)
Catalysis and the Use of Energy by Cells	79	(15)
Biological Order Is Made Possible by the Release of Heat Energy from Cells	79	(3)
Photosynthetic Organisms Use Sunlight to Synthesize Organic Molecules	82	(1)
Cells Obtain Energy by the Oxidation of Biological Molecules	83	(1)
Oxidation and Reduction Involve Electron Transfers	84	(1)
Enzymes Lower the Barriers That Block Chemical Reactions	85	(1)
How Enzymes Find Their Substrates: The Importance of Rapid Diffusion	86	(3)
The Free-Energy Change for a Reaction Determines Whether It Can Occur	89	(1)
The Concentration of Reactants Influences XXXG	89	(4)
For Sequential Reactions, XXXG(0) Values Are Additive	93	(1)
Activated Carrier Molecules and Biosynthesis	94	(11)
The Formation of an Activated Carrier Is Coupled to an Energetically Favorable Reaction	95	(1)
ATP Is the Most Widely Used Activated Carrier Molecule	96	(1)
Energy Stored in ATP Is Often Harnessed to Join Two Molecules Together	97	(1)
NADH and NADPH Are Important Electron Carriers	98	(2)
There Are Many Other Activated Carrier Molecules in Cells	100	(3)
The Synthesis of Biological Polymers Requires an Energy Input	103	(2)
Essential Concepts	105	(1)
Questions	106	(2)
Chapter 4 How Cells Obtain Energy from Food	108	(26)
The Breakdown of Sugars and Fats	108	(17)
Food Molecules Are Broken Down in Three Stages to Produce ATP	108	(2)
Glycolysis Is a Central ATP-producing Pathway	110	(4)
Fermentations Allow ATP to Be Produced in the Absence of Oxygen	114	(1)
Glycolysis Illustrates How Enzymes Couple Oxidation to Energy Storage	114	(4)
Sugars and Fats Are Both Degraded to Acetyl CoA in Mitochondria	118	(1)
The Citric Acid Cycle Generates NADH by Oxidizing Acetyl Groups to CO(2)	119	(5)
Electron Transport Drives the Synthesis of the Majority of the ATP in Most Cells	124	(1)
Storing and Utilizing Food	125	(4)
Organisms Store Food Molecules in Special Reservoirs	125	(2)
Many Biosynthetic Pathways Begin with Glycolysis or the Citric Acid Cycle	127	(1)
Metabolism Is Organized and Regulated	128	(1)
Essential Concepts	129	(1)
Questions	130	(4)
Chapter 5 Protein Structure and Function	134	(50)
The Shape and Structure of Proteins	134	(20)
The Shape of a Protein Is Specified by Its Amino Acid Sequence	134	(5)
Proteins Fold into a Conformation of Lowest Energy	139	(1)
Proteins Come in a Wide Variety of Complicated Shapes	140	(1)
The XXX Helix and the XXX Sheet Are Common Folding Patterns	141	(4)
Proteins Have Several Levels of Organization	145	(2)
Few of the Many Possible Polypeptide Chains Will Be Useful	147	(1)
Proteins Can Be Classified into Families	147	(1)
Larger Protein Molecules Often Contain More Than One Polypeptide Chain	148	(1)
Proteins Can Assemble into Filaments, Sheets, or Spheres	149	(3)
A Helix Is a Common Structural Motif in Biological Structures	152	(1)
Some Types of Proteins Have Elongated Fibrous Shapes	152	(2)
Extracellular Proteins Are Often Stabilized by Covalent Cross-Linkages	154	(1)
How Proteins Work	154	(25)
Proteins Bind to Other Molecules	155	(1)
The Binding Sites of Antibodies Are Especially Versatile	156	(1)
Binding Strength Is Measured by the Equilibrium Constant	157	(10)
Enzymes Are Powerful and Highly Specific Catalysts	167	(1)
Lysozyme Illustrates How an Enzyme Works	167	(2)
V(max) and K(M) Measure Enzyme Performance	169	(2)
Tightly Bound Small Molecules Add Extra Functions to Proteins	171	(1)
The Catalytic Activities of Enzymes Are Regulated	172	(1)
Allosteric Enzymes Have Two Binding Sites That Interact	173	(1)
A Conformational Change Can Be Driven by Protein Phosphorylation	174	(2)
GTP-binding Proteins Can Undergo Dramatic Conformational Changes	176	(1)
Motor Proteins Produce Large Movements in Cells	176	(2)
Proteins Often Form Large Complexes That Function as Protein Machines	178	(1)
Essential Concepts	179	(1)
Questions	180	(4)
Chapter 6 DNA	184	(28)
The Structure and Function of DNA	184	(5)
Genes Are Made of DNA	185	(1)
A DNA Molecule Consists of Two Complementary Chains of Nucleotides	185	(3)
The Structure of DNA Provides a Mechanism for Heredity	188	(1)
DNA Replication	189	(9)
DNA Synthesis Begins at Replication Origins	190	(1)
New DNA Synthesis Occurs at Replication Forks	191	(2)
The Replication Fork Is Asymmetrical	193	(1)
DNA Polymerase Is Self-correcting	194	(1)
Short Lengths of RNA Act as Primers for DNA Synthesis	194	(2)
Proteins at a Replication Fork Cooperate to Form a Replication Machine	196	(2)
DNA Repair	198	(8)
Changes in DNA Are the Cause of Mutations	198	(2)
A DNA Mismatch Repair System Removes Replication Errors That Escape from the Replication Machine	200	(1)
DNA Is Continually Suffering Damage in Cells	201	(1)
The Stability of Genes Depends on DNA Repair	202	(3)
The High Fidelity with Which DNA Is Maintained Means That Closely Related Species Have Proteins with Very Similar Sequences	205	(1)
Essential Concepts	206	(1)
Questions	207	(5)
Chapter 7 From DNA to Protein	212	(34)
From DNA to RNA	212	(12)
Portions of DNA Sequence Are Transcribed into RNA	212	(1)
Transcription Produces RNA Complementary to One Strand of DNA	213	(2)
Several Types of RNA Are Produced in Cells	215	(1)
Signals in DNA Tell RNA Polymerase Where to Start and Finish	216	(2)
Eucaryotic RNAs Undergo Processing in the Nucleus	218	(1)
Eucaryotic Genes Are Interrupted by Noncoding Sequences	219	(1)
Introns Are Removed by RNA Splicing	220	(2)
mRNA Molecules Are Eventually Degraded by the Cell	222	(1)
The Earliest Cells May Have Had Introns in Their Genes	223	(1)
From RNA to Protein	224	(10)
An mRNA Sequence Is Decoded in Sets of Three Nucleotides	224	(1)
tRNA Molecules Match Amino Acids to Codons in mRNA	225	(2)
Specific Enzymes Couple tRNAs to the Correct Amino Acid	227	(1)
The RNA Message Is Decoded on Ribosomes	227	(3)
Codons in mRNA Signal Where to Start and to Stop Protein Synthesis	230	(2)
Proteins Are Made on Polyribosomes	232	(1)
Carefully Controlled Protein Breakdown Helps Regulate the Amount of Each Protein in a Cell	232	(2)
There Are Many Steps Between DNA and Protein	234	(1)
RNA and the Origins of Life	234	(6)
Simple Biological Molecules Can Form Under Prebiotic Conditions	235	(2)
RNA Can Both Store Information and Catalyze Chemical Reactions	237	(2)
RNA Is Thought to Predate DNA in Evolution	239	(1)
Essential Concepts	240	(1)
Questions	241	(5)
Chapter 8 Chromosomes and Gene Regulation	246	(32)
The Structure of Eucaryotic Chromosomes	246	(11)
Eucaryotic DNA Is Packaged into Chromosomes	246	(1)
Chromosomes Exist in Different States Throughout the Life of a Cell	247	(2)
Specialized DNA Sequences Ensure That Chromosomes Replicate Efficiently	249	(1)
Nucleosomes Are the Basic Units of Chromatin Structure	250	(2)
Chromosomes Have Several Levels of DNA Packing	252	(1)
Interphase Chromosomes Contain Both Condensed and More Extended Forms of Chromatin	253	(3)
Position Effects on Gene Expression Reveal Differences in Interphase Chromosome Packing	256	(1)
Interphase Chromosomes Are Organized Within the Nucleus	256	(1)
Gene Regulation	257	(17)
Cells Regulate the Expression of Their Genes	258	(1)
Transcription Is Controlled by Proteins Binding to Regulatory DNA Sequences	259	(2)
Repressors Turn Genes Off and Activators Turn Them On	261	(2)
Initiation of Eucaryotic Gene Transcription Is a Complex Process	263	(1)
Eucaryotic RNA Polymerase Requires General Transcription Factors	264	(1)
Eucaryotic Gene Regulatory Proteins Control Gene Expression from a Distance	265	(1)
Packing of Promoter DNA into Nucleosomes Can Affect Initiation of Transcription	266	(1)
Eucaryotic Genes Are Regulated by Combinations of Proteins	267	(1)
The Expression of Different Genes Can Be Coordinated by a Single Protein	268	(1)
Combinatorial Control Can Create Different Cell Types	269	(2)
Stable Patterns of Gene Expression Can Be Transmitted to Daughter Cells	271	(2)
The Formation of an Entire Organ Can Be Triggered by a Single Gene Regulatory Protein	273	(1)
Essential Concepts	274	(1)
Questions	275	(3)
Chapter 9 Genetic Variation	278	(37)
Genetic Variation in Bacteria	278	(13)
The Rapid Rate of Bacterial Division Means That Mutation Will Occur Over a Short Time Period	279	(1)
Mutation in Bacteria Can Be Selected by a Change in Environmental Conditions	280	(1)
Bacterial Cells Can Acquire Genes from Other Bacteria	281	(1)
Bacterial Genes Can Be Transferred by a Process Called Bacterial Mating	282	(2)
Some Bacteria Can Take Up DNA from Their Surroundings	284	(1)
Gene Exchange Occurs by Homologous Recombination Between Two DNA Molecules of Similar Nucleotide Sequence	285	(3)
Genes Can Be Transferred Between Bacteria by Bacterial Viruses	288	(1)
Transposable Elements Create Genetic Diversity	289	(2)
Sources of Genetic Change in Eucaryotic Genomes	291	(13)
Random DNA Duplications Create Families of Related Genes	292	(1)
Genes Encoding New Proteins Can Be Created by the Recombination of Exons	293	(1)
A Large Part of the DNA of Multicellular Eucaryotes Consists of Repeated, Noncoding Sequences	294	(1)
About 10% of the Human Genome Consists of Two Families of Transposable Sequences	295	(1)
The Evolution of Genomes Has Been Accelerated by Transposable Elements	296	(1)
Viruses Are Fully Mobile Genetic Elements That Can Escape from Cells	297	(3)
Retroviruses Reverse the Normal Flow of Genetic Information	300	(2)
Retroviruses That Have Picked Up Host Genes Can Make Cells Cancerous	302	(2)
Sexual Reproduction and the Reassortment of Genes	304	(5)
Sexual Reproduction Gives a Competitive Advantage to Organisms in an Unpredictably Variable Environment	304	(1)
Sexual Reproduction Involves Both Diploid and Haploid Cells	305	(1)
Meiosis Generates Haploid Cells from Diploid Cells	306	(1)
Meiosis Generates Enormous Genetic Variation	307	(2)
Essential Concepts	309	(1)
Questions	310	(5)
Chapter 10 DNA Technology	315	(33)
How DNA Molecules Are Analyzed	315	(5)
Restriction Nucleases Cut DNA Molecules at Specific Sites	315	(2)
Gel Electrophoresis Separates DNA Fragments of Different Sizes	317	(3)
The Nucleotide Sequence of DNA Fragments Can Be Determined	320	(1)
Nucleic Acid Hybridization	320	(4)
DNA Hybridization Facilitates the Prenatal Diagnosis of Genetic Diseases	321	(2)
In Situ Hybridization Locates Nucleic Acid Sequences in Cells or on Chromosomes	323	(1)
DNA Cloning	324	(11)
DNA Ligase Joins DNA Fragments Together to Produce a Recombinant DNA Molecule	325	(1)
Bacterial Plasmids Can Be Used to Clone DNA	326	(1)
Human Genes Are Isolated by DNA Cloning	327	(2)
cDNA Libraries Represent the mRNA Produced by a Particular Tissue	329	(2)
Hybridization Allows Even Distantly Related Genes to Be Identified	331	(1)
The Polymerase Chain Reaction Amplifies Selected DNA Sequences	332	(3)
DNA Engineering	335	(7)
Completely Novel DNA Molecules Can Be Constructed	335	(2)
Rare Cellular Proteins Can Be Made in Large Amounts Using Cloned DNA	337	(1)
RNAs Can Be Produced by Transcription in Vitro	338	(1)
Mutant Organisms Best Reveal the Function of a Gene	339	(1)
Transgenic Animals Carry Engineered Genes	340	(2)
Essential Concepts	342	(1)
Questions	343	(5)
Chapter 11 Membrane Structure	348	(24)
The Lipid Bilayer	348	(9)
Membrane Lipids Form Bilayers in Water	349	(3)
The Lipid Bilayer Is a Two-dimensional Fluid	352	(1)
The Fluidity of a Lipid Bilayer Depends on Its Composition	353	(1)
The Lipid Bilayer Is Asymmetrical	354	(1)
Lipid Asymmetry Is Generated Inside the Cell	355	(1)
Lipid Bilayers Are Impermeable to Solutes and Ions	356	(1)
Membrane Proteins	357	(11)
Membrane Proteins Associate with the Lipid Bilayers in Various Ways	358	(1)
A Polypeptide Chain Usually Crosses the Bilayer as an XXX Helix	358	(2)
Membrane Proteins Can Be Solubilized in Detergents and Purified	360	(1)
The Complete Structure Is Known for Very Few Membrane Proteins	361	(2)
The Plasma Membrane Is Reinforced by the Cell Cortex	363	(1)
The Cell Surface Is Coated with Carbohydrate	364	(2)
Cells Can Restrict the Movement of Membrane Proteins	366	(2)
Essential Concepts	368	(1)
Questions	368	(5)
Chapter 12 Membrane Transport	372	(37)
The Ion Concentrations Inside a Cell Are Very Different from Those Outside	372	(1)
Carrier Proteins and Their Functions	373	(12)
Solutes Cross Membranes by Passive or Active Transport	375	(1)
Electrical Forces as Well as Concentration Gradients Can Drive Passive Transport	375	(2)
Active Transport Moves Solutes Against Their Electrochemical Gradients	377	(1)
Animal Cells Use the Energy of ATP Hydrolysis to Pump Out Na+	378	(1)
The Na(+)-K(+) Pump Is Driven by the Transient Addition of a Phosphate Group	379	(1)
Animal Cells Use the Na(+) Gradient to Take Up Nutrients Actively	380	(1)
The Na(+)-K(+) Pump Helps Maintain the Osmotic Balance of Animal Cells	381	(2)
Intracellular Ca(2+) Concentrations Are Kept Low by Ca(2+) Pumps	383	(1)
H(+) Gradients Are Used to Drive Membrane Transport in Plants, Fungi, and Bacteria	384	(1)
Ion Channels and the Membrane Potential	385	(9)
Ion Channels Are Ion Selective and Gated	386	(2)
Ion Channels Randomly Snap Between Open and Closed States	388	(2)
Voltage-gated Ion Channels Respond to the Membrane Potential	390	(1)
The Membrane Potential Is Governed by Membrane Permeability to Specific Ions	391	(3)
Ion Channels and Signaling in Nerve Cells	394	(10)
Action Potentials Provide for Rapid Long-Distance Communication	395	(1)
Action Potentials Are Usually Mediated by Voltage-gated Na(+) Channels	395	(2)
Voltage-gated Ca(2+) Channels Convert Electrical Signals into Chemical Signals at Nerve Terminals	397	(2)
Transmitter-gated Channels in Target Cells Convert Chemical Signals Back into Electrical Signals	399	(1)
Neurons Receive Both Excitatory and Inhibitory Inputs	400	(1)
Synaptic Connections Enable You to Think, Act, and Remember	401	(3)
Essential Concepts	404	(1)
Questions	405	(4)
Chapter 13 Energy Generation in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts	409	(39)
Cells Obtain Most of Their Energy by a Membrane-based Mechanism	409	(1)
Mitochondria and Oxidative Phosphorylation	410	(11)
A Mitochondrion Contains Two Membrane-bounded Compartments	411	(2)
High-Energy Electrons Are Generated via the Citric Acid Cycle	413	(1)
Electrons Are Transferred Along a Chain of Proteins in the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane	414	(1)
Electron Transport Generates a Proton Gradient Across the Membrane	415	(2)
The Proton Gradient Drives ATP Synthesis	417	(2)
Coupled Transport Across the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane Is Driven by the Electrochemical Proton Gradient	419	(1)
Proton Gradients Produce Most of the Cell's ATP	419	(2)
The Rapid Conversion of ADP to ATP in Mitochondria Maintains a High ATP:ADP Ratio in Cells	421	(1)
Electron-Transport Chains and Proton Pumping	421	(9)
Protons Are Readily Moved by the Transfer of Electrons	422	(1)
The Redox Potential Is a Measure of Electron Affinities	422	(1)
Electron Transfers Release Large Amounts of Energy	423	(2)
Metals Tightly Bound to Proteins Form Versatile Electron Carriers	425	(2)
Protons Are Pumped Across the Membrane by the Three Respiratory Enzyme Complexes	427	(2)
Respiration Is Amazingly Efficient	429	(1)
Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis	430	(9)
Chloroplasts Resemble Mitochondria but Have an Extra Compartment	430	(2)
Chloroplasts Capture Energy from Sunlight and Use It to Fix Carbon	432	(1)
Excited Chlorophyll Molecules Funnel Energy into a Reaction Center	433	(1)
Light Energy Drives the Synthesis of ATP and NADPH	434	(2)
Carbon Fixation Is Catalyzed by Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase	436	(2)
Carbon Fixation in Chloroplasts Generates Sucrose and Starch	438	(1)
The Genetic Systems of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Reflect Their Procaryotic Origin	438	(1)
Our Single-celled Ancestors	439	(4)
RNA Sequences Reveal Evolutionary History	439	(1)
Ancient Cells Probably Arose in Hot Environments	440	(1)
Methanococcus Lives in the Dark, Using Only Inorganic Materials as Food	441	(2)
Essential Concepts	443	(1)
Questions	444	(4)
Chapter 14 Intracellular Compartments and Transport	448	(34)
Membrane-bounded Organelles	448	(4)
Eucaryotic Cells Contain a Basic Set of Membrane-bounded Organelles	449	(1)
Membrane-bounded Organelles Evolved in Different Ways	450	(2)
Protein Sorting	452	(10)
Proteins Are Imported into Organelles by Three Mechanisms	453	(1)
Signal Sequences Direct Proteins to the Correct Compartment	453	(2)
Proteins Enter the Nucleus Through Nuclear Pores	455	(2)
Proteins Unfold to Enter Mitochondria and Chloroplasts	457	(1)
Proteins Enter the Endoplasmic Reticulum While Being Synthesized	458	(1)
Soluble Proteins Are Released into the ER Lumen	459	(2)
Start and Stop Signals Determine the Arrangement of a Transmembrane Protein in the Lipid Bilayer	461	(1)
Vesicular Transport	462	(5)
Transport Vesicles Carry Soluble Proteins and Membrane Between Compartments	463	(1)
Vesicle Budding Is Driven by the Assembly of a Protein Coat	463	(2)
The Specificity of Vesicle Docking Depends on SNAREs	465	(2)
Secretory Pathways	467	(5)
Most Proteins Are Covalently Modified in the ER	467	(1)
Exit from the ER Is Controlled to Ensure Protein Quality	468	(1)
Proteins Are Further Modified and Sorted in the Golgi Apparatus	469	(1)
Secretory Proteins Are Released from the Cell by Exocytosis	470	(2)
Endocytic Pathways	472	(6)
Specialized Phagocytic Cells Ingest Large Particles	472	(1)
Fluid and Macromolecules Are Taken Up by Pinocytosis	473	(1)
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis Provides a Specific Route into Animal Cells	474	(1)
Endocytosed Macromolecules Are Sorted in Endosomes	475	(1)
Lysosomes Are the Principal Sites of Intracellular Digestion	476	(2)
Essential Concepts	478	(1)
Questions	479	(3)
Chapter 15 Cell Communication	482	(32)
General Principles of Cell Signaling	482	(11)
Signals Can Act over Long or Short Range	482	(2)
Each Cell Responds to a Limited Set of Signals	484	(2)
Receptors Relay Signals via Intracellular Signaling Pathways	486	(2)
Some Signal Molecules Can Cross the Plasma Membrane	488	(1)
Nitric Oxide Can Enter Cells to Activate Enzymes Directly	489	(1)
There Are Three Main Classes of Cell-Surface Receptors	490	(1)
Ion-Channel-linked Receptors Convert Chemical Signals into Electrical Ones	491	(1)
Intracellular Signaling Cascades Act as a Series of Molecular Switches	492	(1)
G-Protein-linked Receptors	493	(11)
Stimulation of G-Protein-linked Receptors Activates G-Protein Subunits	493	(2)
Some G Proteins Regulate Ion Channels	495	(1)
Some G Proteins Activate Membrane-bound Enzymes	496	(1)
The Cyclic AMP Pathway Can Activate Enzymes and Turn On Genes	497	(2)
The Pathway Through Phospholipase C Results in a Rise in Intracellular Ca(2+)	499	(2)
A Ca(2+) Signal Triggers Many Biological Processes	501	(1)
Intracellular Signaling Cascades Can Achieve Astonishing Speed, Sensitivity, and Adaptability: Photoreceptors in the Eye	502	(2)
Enzyme-linked Receptors	504	(6)
Activated Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Assemble a Complex of Intracellular Signaling Proteins	505	(1)
Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Activate the GTP-binding Protein Ras	506	(2)
Protein Kinase Networks Integrate Information to Control Complex Cell Behaviors	508	(2)
Essential Concepts	510	(1)
Questions	511	(3)
Chapter 16 Cytoskeleton	514	(35)
Intermediate Filaments	514	(4)
Intermediate Filaments Are Strong and Durable	515	(1)
Intermediate Filaments Strengthen Cells Against Mechanical Stress	516	(2)
Microtubules	518	(11)
Microtubules Are Hollow Tubes with Structurally Distinct Ends	519	(1)
Microtubules Are Maintained by a Balance of Assembly and Disassembly	519	(2)
The Centrosome Is the Major Microtubule-organizing Center in Animal Cells	521	(1)
Growing Microtubules Show Dynamic Instability	522	(1)
Microtubules Organize the Interior of the Cell	523	(2)
Motor Proteins Drive Intracellular Transport	525	(1)
Organelles Move Along Microtubules	526	(1)
Cilia and Flagella Contain Stable Microtubules Moved by Dynein	527	(2)
Actin Filaments	529	(14)
Actin Filaments Are Thin and Flexible	530	(1)
Actin and Tubulin Polymerize by Similar Mechanisms	531	(1)
Many Proteins Bind to Actin and Modify Its Properties	532	(1)
Actin-rich Cortex Underlines the Plasma Membrane of Most Eucaryotic Cells	533	(1)
Cell Crawling Depends on Actin	533	(3)
Actin Associates with Myosin to Form Contractile Structures	536	(2)
During Muscle Contraction Actin Filaments Slide Against Myosin Filaments	538	(1)
Muscle Contraction Is Triggered by a Sudden Rise in Ca(2+)	539	(4)
Essential Concepts	543	(1)
Questions	544	(5)
Chapter 17 Cell Division	549	(23)
Overview of the Cell Cycle	549	(3)
The Eucaryotic Cell Cycle Is Divided into Four Phases	549	(2)
The Cytoskeleton Carries Out Both Mitosis and Cytokinesis	551	(1)
Some Organelles Fragment at Mitosis	551	(1)
Mitosis	552	(8)
The Mitotic Spindle Starts to Assemble in Prophase	552	(1)
Chromosomes Attach to the Mitotic Spindle at Prometaphase	553	(4)
Chromosomes Line Up at the Spindle Equator at Metaphase	557	(1)
Daughter Chromosomes Segregate at Anaphase	557	(2)
The Nuclear Envelope Re-forms at Telophase	559	(1)
Cytokinesis	560	(3)
The Mitotic Spindle Determines the Plane of Cytoplasmic Cleavage	560	(1)
The Contractile Ring of Animal Cells Is Made of Actin and Myosin	561	(1)
Cytokinesis in Plant Cells Involves New Cell-Wall Formation	562	(1)
Meiosis	563	(4)
Homologous Chromosomes Pair Off During Meiosis	563	(1)
Meiosis Involves Two Cell Divisions Rather Than One	564	(3)
Essential Concepts	567	(1)
Questions	568	(4)
Chapter 18 Cell-Cycle Control and Cell Death	572	(22)
The Cell-Cycle Control System	572	(10)
A Central Control System Triggers the Major Processes of the Cell Cycle	572	(2)
The Cell-Cycle Control System Is Based on Cyclically Activated Protein Kinases	574	(1)
MPF Is the Cyclin-Cdk Complex That Controls Entry into M Phase	575	(1)
Cyclin-dependent Protein Kinases Are Regulated by the Accumulation and Destruction of Cyclin	576	(2)
The Activity of Cdks Is Further Regulated by Their Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation	578	(1)
Different Cyclin-Cdk Complexes Trigger Different Steps in the Cell Cycle	578	(2)
The Cell Cycle Can Be Halted in G(1) by Cdk Inhibitor Proteins	580	(1)
Cells Can Dismantle Their Control System and Withdraw from the Cell Cycle	581	(1)
Control of Cell Numbers in Multicellular Organisms	582	(7)
Cell Proliferation Depends on Signals from Other Cells	582	(2)
Animal Cells Have a Built-in Limitation on the Number of Times They Will Divide	584	(1)
Animal Cells Require Signals from Other Cells to Avoid Programmed Cell Death	584	(1)
Programmed Cell Death Is Mediated by an Intracellular Proteolytic Cascade	585	(2)
Cancer Cells Disobey the Social Controls on Cell Proliferation and Survival	587	(2)
Essential Concepts	589	(1)
Questions	590	(4)
Chapter 19 Tissues	594
Extracellular Matrix and Connective Tissues	594	(11)
Plant Cells Have Tough External Walls	594	(2)
Cellulose Fibers Give the Plant Cell Wall Its Tensile Strength	596	(4)
Animal Connective Tissues Consist Largely of Extracellular Matrix	600	(1)
Collagen Provides Tensile Strength in Animal Connective Tissues	600	(2)
Cells Organize the Collagen That They Secrete	602	(1)
Integrins Couple the Matrix Outside a Cell to the Cytoskeleton Inside It	603	(1)
Gels of Polysaccharide and Protein Fill Spaces and Resist Compression	604	(1)
Epithelial Sheets and Cell-Cell Junctions	605	(8)
Epithelial Sheets Are Polarized and Rest on a Basal Lamina	606	(1)
Tight Junctions Make an Epithelium Leak-proof and Separate Its Apical and Basal Surfaces	607	(2)
Cytoskeleton-linked Junctions Bind Epithelial Cells Robustly to One Another and to the Basal Lamina	609	(3)
Gap Junctions Allow Ions and Small Molecules to Pass from Cell to Cell	612	(1)
Tissue Maintenance and Renewal, and Its Disruption by Cancer	613	(8)
Different Tissues Are Renewed at Different Rates	615	(1)
Stem Cells Generate a Continuous Supply of Terminally Differentiated Cells	615	(3)
Mutations in a Single Dividing Cell Can Cause It and Its Progeny to Violate the Normal Controls	618	(1)
Cancer Is a Consequence of Mutation and Natural Selection Within the Population of Cells That Form the Body	619	(1)
Cancer Requires an Accumulation of Mutations	620	(1)
Development	621	(7)
Programmed Cell Movements Create the Animal Body Plan	622	(1)
Cells Switch On Different Sets of Genes According to Their Position and Their History	622	(2)
Diffusible Signals Can Provide Cells with Positional Information	624	(2)
Studies in Drosophila Have Given a Key to Vertebrate Development	626	(1)
Similar Genes Are Used Throughout the Animal Kingdom to Give Cells an Internal Record of Their Position	627	(1)
Essential Concepts	628	(1)
Questions	629