Grading

by Brookhart, Susan M.

• ISBN13: 9780132217217
• ISBN10: 013221721X
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2008-07-09
• Publisher: Pearson

Summary

Whatever his/her feeling about grades, nearly every teacher must give them. That's the rationale behind this straightforward text#x13;helping prospective teachers to understandgrading and learn to do it well. Grading, Second Editioncontinues to be the resource staying true to its original intent#x13;to help current and future teachers begin to see themselves as competent graders. The text focuses on explaining how grades function in schools and schooling, and on developing skills in grading work and creating report cards. Based on current research and informed by the author's experience, the text is replete with detailed explanations, stories and illustrations, student work samples, sample report cards and other school artifacts, and references for further study. Readers will be introduced to the historical, social, legal, and psychological contexts of grading, and will obtain the necessary content and practice on how to grade individual units of student work and techniques for turning discrete grades into report-card marks. Every major section of the book concludes with a more comprehensive assignment that will help readers assess their knowledge of the major concepts and applications recently studied. Every chapter ends with a set of questions or exercises that serve as a self-assessment tools and a means to practice skill development. Organized into three major parts (Understanding Grading, Integrating Assessment and Instruction, and Combining Grades Into Marks for Report Cards), with the added encouragement of self-reflection at the onset and throughout, Grading, Second Editionfully prepares current teachers and those working toward that goal to refine and perfect a simple, yet compelling function in the process of school, grading. Grading, Second Editionis a perfect supplement for pre-service and current teachers, and for use in General K-12 Methods courses and courses in Tests and Measurements.

Table of Contents

Understanding Grading	p. 1
Introduction	p. 2
Key Concepts	p. 2
Why Grading	p. 4
Purposes for Grading	p. 5
Definitions of Terms	p. 7
Grading	p. 7
Achievement	p. 7
Validity	p. 9
Reliability	p. 10
Organization	p. 11
Self-Reflection: Now and Later	p. 11
Exercises	p. 12
Grading in Its Contexts	p. 14
Key Concepts	p. 14
The Historical Context of Grading	p. 15
Grading at Universities, 1640s to 1800s	p. 15
Grading in the Common School, 1800s	p. 18
1890 to 1920	p. 19
1920 to 1930	p. 20
1930 to 1960	p. 21
1960 to 1980	p. 22
1980 to 2000	p. 22
2000 to the Present	p. 23
Current Context of Grading	p. 24
Social Context of Grading	p. 29
Legal Context of Grading	p. 30
Confidentiality	p. 30
Grade Penalties	p. 30
Appeals Policies and Due Process	p. 31
Educator Responsibilities	p. 32
Conclusion	p. 32
Exercises	p. 32
The Educational Psychology of Grading	p. 34
Key Concepts	p. 34
Student Perceptions	p. 36
Influence of Grading Practices on Motivation to Learn	p. 38
Attribution Theory	p. 38
Goal Orientations	p. 40
Self-Worth Theory	p. 40
Function of Feedback to Students	p. 44
Cognitive Evaluation Theory	p. 44
Formative Assessment as Feedback for Learning	p. 45
The Classroom Assessment Environment	p. 46
Conclusion	p. 47
Exercises	p. 48
Part 1 Exercises	p. 49
Integrating Assessment and Instruction	p. 51
Designing Assessments That Reflect Intentions for Learning	p. 52
Key Concepts	p. 52
Matching Assessment and Instruction	p. 54
Paper-and-Pencil Tests	p. 55
Novel Applications Are Required to Tap Higher Order Thinking	p. 57
Performance Assessments	p. 58
Scoring Is Part of the Match	p. 59
Tests	p. 59
Performance Assessments	p. 61
Conclusion	p. 61
Exercises	p. 62
Deciding on the Bases for Grading	p. 68
Key Concepts	p. 68
Formative and Summative Evaluation	p. 69
Bases for Grading	p. 72
Kinds of Grading Schemes	p. 73
Points or Percents	p. 74
Rubrics	p. 74
Assessment Versus Grading	p. 79
Conclusion	p. 79
Exercises	p. 80
Providing Grades and Other Feedback to Students	p. 82
Key Concepts	p. 82
Providing Informative Feedback	p. 83
Student Involvement in Assessment	p. 85
Creating Grading Criteria	p. 85
Applying Criteria to Their Own and Peers' Work	p. 85
Going Over Test Results	p. 85
Grading Is a Skill	p. 87
Exemplars	p. 95
More Practice	p. 95
Fourth-Grade "Dogs and Cats" Essays	p. 96
High School English Essays	p. 100
Grading Tests	p. 105
Grading Term Papers, Written Reports, and Projects	p. 106
Conclusion	p. 108
Exercises	p. 108
Part 2 Exercises	p. 111
Combining Grades Into Marks for Report Cards	p. 113
Grading Policies and Formats	p. 114
Key Concepts	p. 114
Grades Should Reflect Achievement	p. 115
Report Card Formats	p. 118
Physical Characteristics	p. 118
Administrative Policy	p. 123
Instructional Targets	p. 124
Grading Policies	p. 129
Grade-Point Averages	p. 131
Self-Reflection Is Critical	p. 132
Conclusion	p. 133
Exercises	p. 138
Developmental Concerns in Grading	p. 142
Key Concepts	p. 142
Grading in Special Education	p. 143
Adapting Methods of Arriving at Report Card Grades	p. 146
Adapting Reporting Mechanisms for Students with Special Needs	p. 147
Adapting Grades for Individual Assignments	p. 149
Providing Feedback to Students with Special Needs	p. 150
Grading in Early Childhood	p. 151
Grading in Elementary and Secondary Classrooms	p. 154
Conclusion	p. 155
Exercises	p. 155
Developing Skills at Combining Grades into Marks for Report Cards	p. 156
Key Concepts	p. 156
Arriving at a Categorical Grade	p. 158
Arriving at a Letter Grade via Rubrics	p. 160
The Median Method for Calculating Report Card Grades	p. 161
Combining Percent Scores and Rubrics or Grades	p. 162
Arriving at a Letter Grade via Points	p. 163
Letter Grades as Averages of Percentage Grades	p. 163
Letter Grades as Percentage of Total Possible Points	p. 165
The Influence of Zeros in Point-Based Grading	p. 166
Reviewing Borderline Grades	p. 168
Electronic Methods: Gradebook Packages, Web-Based Systems	p. 169
Conclusion	p. 170
Exercises	p. 171
Other Ways of Communicating About Student Achievement	p. 174
Key Concepts	p. 174
Sending Work Home	p. 175
A Communication Process	p. 176
Portfolios	p. 178
Set a Purpose	p. 178
Plan the Logistics	p. 178
Collect the Evidence	p. 179
Interpret the Evidence	p. 179
Communicate the Information and Listen to the Response	p. 179
Strengths and Weaknesses	p. 180
Narratives	p. 180
Set a Purpose	p. 181
Plan the Logistics and Collect the Evidence	p. 182
Interpret the Evidence and Communicate the Information	p. 183
Listen to the Response	p. 183
Strengths and Weaknesses	p. 183
Parent-Teacher, Student-Teacher, or Student-Parent-Teacher Conferences	p. 183
Set a Purpose	p. 184
Plan the Logistics	p. 184
Collect the Evidence	p. 184
Interpret the Evidence, Communicate the Information, and Listen to the Response	p. 184
Strengths and Weaknesses	p. 184
Parent-Teacher Conferences	p. 185
Student-Teacher Conferences	p. 185
Student-Parent-Teacher Conferences	p. 186
Conclusion	p. 187
Exercises	p. 187
Part 3 Exercises	p. 189
Test Blueprints	p. 193
Do's and Don'ts for Writing Good Test Items	p. 195
Alternative Assessment Checklist	p. 199
Key for Sample Papers from Chapter 6	p. 201
References	p. 202
Index	p. 206
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