Hazardous Wastes : Sources, Pathways, Receptors

by Watts, Richard J.

• ISBN13: 9780471002383
• ISBN10: 0471002380
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1998-02-12
• Publisher: Wiley

Summary

A fundamental approach to the scientific principles of hazardous waste management and engineering, with the study of both currently-generated hazardous wastes and the assessment and characterization of contaminated sites.

Author Biography

Richard J. Watts is the author of Hazardous Wastes: Sources, Pathways, Receptors, published by Wiley.

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION	1	(46)
1.1 Preregulatory Disposal of Hazardous Wastes	2	(11)
1.1.1 Past Disposal Practices	2	(6)
1.1.2 Case Histories	8	(1)
1.1.3 The Magnitude of the Problem	9	(4)
1.2 Hazardous Waste Legislation	13	(17)
1.2.1 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments	13	(10)
1.2.2 Underground Storage Tank Legislation	23	(1)
1.2.3 The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act and the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act	24	(3)
1.2.4 The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act	27	(1)
1.2.5 The Clean Water Act	28	(1)
1.2.6 The Toxic Substances Control Act	28	(1)
1.2.7 The Safe Drinking Water Act	28	(1)
1.2.8 The Clean Air Act	29	(1)
1.2.9 The Federal Pollution Prevention Act of 1990	29	(1)
1.2.10 State and Local Legislation	30	(1)
1.2.11 Hazardous Wastes, Hazardous Materials, Hazardous Substances	30	(1)
1.3 Current Hazardous Waste Generation and Management	30	(4)
1.4 The Nature of Hazardous Waste Management, Assessment, and Control	34	(4)
1.5 Source-Pathway-Receptor Analysis	38	(3)
1.6 Summary of Important Points and Concepts	41	(6)
PART ONE: SOURCES	47	(206)
CHAPTER 2: COMMON HAZARDOUS WASTES: NOMENCLATURE, INDUSTRIAL USES, DISPOSAL HISTORIES	48	(107)
2.1 Introduction to Organic Chemistry	48	(29)
2.1.1 Carbon Bonding	49	(3)
2.1.2 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds	52	(25)
2.2 Petroleum	77	(4)
2.3 Nonhalogenated Solvents	81	(4)
2.3.1 Hydrocarbons	81	(1)
2.3.2 Ketones	82	(2)
2.3.3 Alcohols and Esters	84	(1)
2.4 Halogenated Solvents	85	(5)
2.4.1 Nomenclature of Aliphatic Halocarbons	87	(1)
2.4.2 Uses and Disposal of Common Halogenated Solvents	88	(2)
2.5 Pesticides	90	(14)
2.5.1 Insecticides	91	(6)
2.5.2 Herbicides	97	(5)
2.5.3 Fungicides	102	(2)
2.5.4 Soil Fumigants	104	(1)
2.6 Explosives	104	(5)
2.6.1 Aliphatic Nitrate Esters	107	(1)
2.6.2 Nitramines	107	(2)
2.6.3 Primary Explosives	109	(1)
2.7 Industrial Intermediates	109	(5)
2.8 Polychlorinated Biphenyls	114	(2)
2.9 Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins and Dibenzofurans	116	(3)
2.10 Metals and Inorganic Nonmetals	119	(8)
2.10.1 Arsenic (As)	120	(2)
2.10.2 Cadmium (Cd)	122	(1)
2.10.3 Chromium (Cr)	122	(1)
2.10.4 Lead (Pb)	123	(1)
2.10.5 Nickel (Ni)	124	(1)
2.10.6 Mercury (Hg)	124	(1)
2.10.7 Cyanides	125	(1)
2.10.8 Asbestos	126	(1)
2.11 Nuclear Wastes	127	(12)
2.12 Information Sources on Contaminant Nomenclature, Structure, and Properties	139	(2)
2.13 Summary of Important Points and Concepts	141	(14)
CHAPTER 3: COMMON HAZARDOUS WASTES: PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION	155	(57)
3.1 Common Concentration Units	155	(5)
3.2 Water Solubility	160	(7)
3.3 Density and Specific Gravity	167	(3)
3.4 Light and Dense Nonaqueous Phase Liquids	170	(7)
3.5 Flammability Limits	177	(5)
3.6 Flash Point and Ignition Temperature	182	(2)
3.7 Chemical Incompatibility	184	(7)
3.8 Labels and Placards	191	(7)
3.9 Chemical Abstract Service Registry Numbers	198	(4)
3.10 Priority Pollutants	202	(1)
3.11 Supplemental Data on Contaminant Properties	202	(2)
3.12 Summary of Important Points and Concepts	204	(8)
CHAPTER 4: SOURCE ANALYSIS	212	(41)
4.1 Materials Balances and Waste Audits	212	(4)
4.2 Hazardous Waste Site Assessments	216	(2)
4.3 Estimation of Source Concentrations for Hazardous Material Spills	218	(1)
4.4 Source Sampling	219	(10)
4.5 Source Sampling Procedures and Strategies	229	(3)
4.5.1 Sampling Devices	229	(2)
4.5.2 Sampling Strategies	231	(1)
4.6 Sampling away from the Source	232	(9)
4.6.1 Sampling and Monitoring of Air and Volatile Emissions	233	(2)
4.6.2 Groundwater Sampling	235	(6)
4.7 Priority Pollutant and Sample Analyses	241	(2)
4.8 Summary of Important Points and Concepts	243	(10)
PART TWO: PATHWAYS	253	(192)
CHAPTER 5: PARTITIONING, SORPTION, AND EXCHANGE AT SURFACES	254	(50)
5.1 Sorption Theory	255	(3)
5.2 The Governing Variables: Sorbent Characteristics, Contaminant Hydrophobicity, and the Solvent	258	(1)
5.3 Properties of Soils and Other Sorbents	258	(9)
5.4 Sorption Isotherms	267	(4)
5.5 The Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient	271	(1)
5.6 The Soil Adsorption Coefficient and the Soil Distribution Coefficient	272	(8)
5.7 The Retardation Factor	280	(2)
5.8 Reactions of Metals in Soils and Solids	282	(5)
5.9 Synopsis of the Partitioning Behavior of Important Hazardous Metals	287	(2)
5.10 Estimation of Partitioning and Potential Mobility of Metals	289	(5)
5.11 Summary of Important Points and Concepts	294	(10)
CHAPTER 6: VOLATILIZATION	304	(29)
6.1 The Governing Variables: Vapor Pressure and Henry's Law	304	(2)
6.2 Volatilization from Open Containers	306	(10)
6.2.1 Volatilization Fluxes across Liquid Surfaces	311	(3)
6.2.2 Saturation Concentration in an Enclosed Area	314	(2)
6.3 Volatilization from Soils	316	(11)
6.3.1 Environmental and Chemical Properties Affecting Volatilization from Soils	316	(3)
6.3.2 Volatilization from Soil Surfaces	319	(3)
6.3.3 Volatilization from Deep Soil Contamination	322	(5)
6.4 Volatilization of Metals and Inorganic Nonmetals	327	(1)
6.5 Summary of Important Points and Concepts	328	(5)
CHAPTER 7: ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC TRANSFORMATIONS	333	(72)
7.1 The Governing Variables: Chemical Structure, Presence of Reactive Species, and Availability	335	(7)
7.1.1 Chemical Structure: The Basis for Reactivity in Abiotic and Biotic Transformations	335	(2)
7.1.2 Presence of Transforming Species	337	(1)
7.1.3 Sorption and NAPLs: Inaccessibility to Transformation Processes	338	(1)
7.1.4 Other Variables Affecting Transformation Processes	339	(3)
7.2 Rates of Transformation	342	(4)
7.3 Abiotic Transformations	346	(20)
7.3.1 Nucleophilic Substitution and Hydrolysis	346	(6)
7.3.2 Elimination Reactions	352	(1)
7.3.3 Oxidation	352	(10)
7.3.4 Reduction	362	(4)
7.3.5 Photochemical Reactions	366	(1)
7.4 Biotic Transformations	366	(20)
7.4.1 Important Organisms in Hazardous Waste Systems	367	(3)
7.4.2 Fundamentals of Microbial Growth and Metabolism	370	(7)
7.4.3 Biodegradation Reactions and Pathways of Hazardous Contaminants	377	(9)
7.5 Common Themes and Perspectives in Abiotic and Biotic Transformations	386	(3)
7.6 Measurement of Transformation Rates	389	(3)
7.7 Summary of Important Points and Concepts	392	(13)
CHAPTER 8: CONTAMINANT RELEASE AND TRANSPORT FROM THE SOURCE	405	(41)
8.1 The Controlling Processes in Contaminant Release and Transport: Sorption, Volatilization, Transformation	405	(3)
8.2 Mass Transfer of Contaminants in the Atmosphere and the Subsurface	408	(5)
8.3 Atmospheric Transport Following Volatilization Releases	413	(8)
8.3.1 Development and Use of Fundamental Atmospheric Dispersion Models	414	(7)
8.4 Subsurface Transport of Contaminants	421	(16)
8.4.1 Development and Use of Groundwater Transport Equations	425	(11)
8.4.2 Contaminant Transport in the Vadose Zone	436	(1)
8.5 Summary of Important Points and Concepts	437	(8)
PART THREE: RECEPTORS	445	(100)
CHAPTER 9: CONCEPTS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE TOXICOLOGY	446	(41)
9.1 Overview of Toxicological Mechanisms	446	(1)
9.2 Fundamentals of Mammalian Physiology	447	(9)
9.2.1 The Skin	448	(1)
9.2.2 The Respiratory System	449	(1)
9.2.3 The Digestive System	450	(2)
9.2.4 The Circulatory System	452	(1)
9.2.5 The Liver	453	(2)
9.2.6 The Kidneys	455	(1)
9.3 Concepts and Mechanisms of Toxicity	456	(11)
9.3.1 Routes of Exposure and Absorption	457	(2)
9.3.2 Distribution and Storage	459	(1)
9.3.3 Bioactivation	460	(5)
9.3.4 Structural Affinity and Toxic Effects	465	(2)
9.4 Carcinogenicity	467	(7)
9.4.1 Mutagenicity	467	(2)
9.4.2 Chemical Carcinogens	469	(2)
9.4.3 Mechanisms of Carcinogenicity	471	(2)
9.4.4 Classes of Chemical Carcinogens	473	(1)
9.5 Toxic Responses of Common Hazardous Chemicals	474	(7)
9.6 Summary of Important Points and Concepts	481	(6)
CHAPTER 10: QUANTITATIVE TOXICOLOGY	487	(31)
10.1 Classification of Toxic Responses	487	(2)
10.2 Acute Toxicity: The LD(50)	489	(5)
10.3 Quantitative Evaluation of Acute Toxicity	494	(7)
10.4 Chronic Industrial Exposure: The Threshold Limit Value	501	(4)
10.5 Maximum Contaminant Levels	505	(3)
10.6 Quantifying the Chronic Toxicity of Noncarcinogens	508	(2)
10.7 Dose-Response Relationships for Carcinogens	510	(2)
10.8 Sources of Toxicity Information	512	(1)
10.9 Summary of Important Points and Concepts	513	(5)
CHAPTER 11: HAZARDOUS WASTE RISK ASSESSMENT	518	(27)
11.1 Principles, Definitions, and Perspectives of Hazardous Waste Risk Assessments	521	(1)
11.2 The Risk Assessment Process	522	(9)
11.2.1 Hazard Identification	522	(3)
11.2.2 Exposure Assessment	525	(4)
11.2.3 Toxicity Assessment and Risk Characterization	529	(2)
11.3 Ecological Risk Assessments	531	(3)
11.3.1 Hazard Assessment	531	(1)
11.3.2 Exposure Assessment	532	(1)
11.3.3 Toxicity Assessment and Risk Characterization	532	(2)
11.4 Sources of Uncertainties in Risk Assessment	534	(2)
11.5 Risk Management and Risk Communication	536	(1)
11.6 Summary of Important Points and Concepts	537	(8)
PART FOUR: MANAGEMENT AND DESIGN APPLICATIONS	545	(91)
CHAPTER 12: APPROACHES TO HAZARDOUS WASTE MINIMIZATION, REMEDIATION, TREATMENT, AND DISPOSAL	546	(42)
12.1 Concepts of Waste Minimization and Pollution Prevention	547	(4)
12.2 Concepts in Hazardous Waste Remediation and Treatment	551	(6)
12.3 Reactor Analysis Applied to Hazardous Waste Systems	557	(3)
12.4 Classification of Remediation and Treatment Processes	560	(18)
12.4.1 Sorption Processes	560	(4)
12.4.2 Volatilization Processes	564	(3)
12.4.3 Abiotic Transformation Processes	567	(5)
12.4.4 Biotic Processes	572	(2)
12.4.5 Bioventing	574	(1)
12.4.6 Landfarming	575	(1)
12.4.7 Thermal Processes--Incineration	575	(3)
12.5 Ultimate Disposal--Hazardous Waste Landfills	578	(3)
12.6 Summary of Important Points and Concepts	581	(7)
CHAPTER 13: DESIGN OF SELECTED PATHWAY APPLICATIONS	588	(48)
13.1 Sorption Design Application: Granular Activated Carbon	588	(11)
13.1.1 Granular Activated Carbon Design Procedures	591	(8)
13.2 Volatilization Design Application: Air Stripping	599	(16)
13.3 Abiotic Transformation Design Application: Soil Remediation Using Fenton's Reagent	615	(5)
13.4 Biotic Transformation Design Application: Ex Situ Slurry Bioreactor	620	(7)
13.5 Summary of Important Points and Concepts	627	(9)
APPENDICES	636	(95)
Appendix A RCRA Waste Lists	636	(23)
Appendix B Water Solubilities of Common Hazardous Compounds	659	(10)
Appendix C Specific Gravities of Common Hazardous Compounds	669	(9)
Appendix D Supplementary Chemical Incompatibility Data	678	(2)
Appendix E Values for Student's t Distribution	680	(2)
Appendix F Random Numbers	682	(2)
Appendix G Log Kow of Common Hazardous Compounds	684	(10)
Appendix H Estimation of Octanol-Water Partition Coefficients	694	(7)
Appendix I Measured K(oc) Values of Some Common Hazardous Compounds	701	(4)
Appendix J Vapor Pressures and Henry's Law Constants for Common Hazardous Compounds	705	(9)
Appendix K Saturation Concentrations in Air and Heats of Vaporization for Some Common Hazardous Compounds	714	(4)
Appendix L Oral and Inhalation Slope Factors and RFDs	718	(13)
Appendix References	731	(10)
Index	741