Holman Bible Atlas A Complete Guide to the Expansive Geography of Biblical History

by Unknown

• ISBN13: 9781558197091
• ISBN10: 1558197095
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1999-01-01
• Publisher: Holman Reference

Summary

The Holman Bible Atlas offers a visual feast through which the reader can explore the world of the Bible. Utilizing 140 full color maps key to biblical events and 140 full color photographs illustrating the land, sites, and archaeology of the biblical world, the Atlas draws the reader into the biblical story. The Holman Bible Atlas begins with an introduction to the geography of the biblical world emphasizing the major physical features of the Ancient Near East with special attention given to the geographical regions of Palestine. Information about daily life and the role of archaeology in recovering ancient cultures are discussed.

Table of Contents

PART ONE: The Biblical Setting	2	(31)
Introduction	2	(1)
Chapter One: The Face of the Ancient Near East	3	(9)
The Fertile Crescent	3	(2)
Mesopotamia: Home of Abraham	5	(1)
Tigris and Euphrates	5	(1)
North and South Mesopotamia	5	(1)
Egypt: Land of Bondage	6	(2)
The Two Lands	7	(1)
The Gift of the Nile	7	(1)
The Levant	8	(2)
Syria and Lebanon	8	(2)
International Highways	10	(2)
The International Coastal Highway (Via Maris)	10	(1)
The King's Highway	11	(1)
Chapter Two: Natural Regions of Palestine	12	(13)
Introduction	12	(1)
Major Geographical Regions and Subdivisions	12	(13)
The Coastal Plain	12	(4)
Jezreel Valley (Valley of Esdraelon)	16	(1)
The Western Mountains	16	(2)
Shephelah	18	(1)
Negeb	19	(1)
The Southern Wilderness	20	(1)
The Jordan Rift	20	(3)
Eastern Plateau (Transjordan)	23	(2)
Chapter Three: Life in Ancient Palestine	25	(8)
Location of Settlements	25	(1)
Climate	25	(1)
Basic Economy and Food Supplies	26	(1)
Field Crops	26	(1)
Trees and Vines	27	(1)
Pastoralism	27	(1)
Cottage Industries	27	(1)
The Agricultural Year	27	(2)
Fall and Winter Activities	29	(1)
Spring Activities	29	(1)
Summer Activities	29	(1)
Agriculture and Israel's Pilgrim Feasts	29	(1)
Archaeology: Recovering Ancient Societies	29	(2)
The Tell	30	(1)
Identifying Place Names	30	(1)
Stratigraphy and Typology	30	(1)
Dating the Strata	30	(1)
Archaeology and the Bible	31	(2)
PART TWO: The old Testament Period	33	(157)
Chapter Four: Before Abraham	33	(8)
Beginnings	33	(2)
Paleolithic Period	34	(1)
Epipaleolithic Period	34	(1)
Neolithic Period	34	(1)
Chalcolithic Period	35	(1)
The Rise and Decline of Early Civilizations (3300-2000 B.C.)	35	(6)
The Urban Revolution	35	(1)
Mesopotamia	35	(3)
Egypt	38	(2)
Palestine and Syria	40	(1)
Chapter Five: The World of the Patriarchs	41	(11)
The Middle Bronze Age In Mesopotamia and Egypt	41	(2)
Mesopotamia	41	(2)
Egypt	43	(1)
Palestine in the Time of the Patriarchs	43	(2)
The Patriarchal Journeys	45	(7)
Migrations of Abraham	45	(3)
The Travels of Jacob	48	(1)
Joseph and the Entry into Egypt	49	(3)
Chapter Six: The Egyptian Experience	52	(11)
Historical Background: The XVIII and XIX Dynasties of Egypt	52	(5)
The XVIII Dynasty and Palestine	53	(1)
Decline of Canaanite City-States	54	(2)
Akhenaten: Egypt's Heretic King	56	(1)
XIX Dynasty and the Hittites	57	(1)
Life in Egypt	57	(6)
Egyptian Administration	58	(2)
A Rural Society	60	(2)
Egypt's Dark Side	62	(1)
Chapter Seven: The Exodus	63	(12)
Introduction	63	(1)
Date of the Exodus	63	(1)
Geography of the Sinai	64	(2)
Northern Coastal Plain	65	(1)
Central Plateau	65	(1)
Southern Granite Mountains	65	(1)
Route of the Exodus	66	(3)
Location on Mount Sinai and Possible Route Theories	67	(1)
The Exodus Route Described	68	(1)
The Sojourn at Kadesh	69	(2)
From Kadesh-barnea to the Plains of Moab	71	(1)
Conquest of the Transjordan	72	(3)
Chapter Eight: Conquest and Settlement	75	(27)
Historical Background	76	(1)
The Sea Peoples	76	(1)
The Power Vacuum	77	(1)
Joshua's Conquests	77	(6)
Campaigns in Central Palestine	77	(1)
Campaigns in the South	78	(1)
The Northern Campaigns	79	(1)
Joshua's Accomplishments	79	(4)
The Tribes of Israel	83	(6)
Distribution of the Land	83	(1)
Levitical Cities	83	(1)
Cities of Refuge	83	(6)
The Days of the Judges	89	(5)
The Judges and Oppressors of Israel	92	(2)
The Philistine Menace	94	(3)
Philistine Origins and Culture	95	(1)
Samson and the Philistines	95	(1)
The Ark of the Covenant	96	(1)
Saul: King of Israel	97	(5)
The Rise of Saul	97	(1)
Saul and the Philistines	98	(1)
Saul and David	98	(3)
The Death of Saul	101	(1)
Chapter Nine: The Kingdom of David and Solomon	102	(13)
Introduction	102	(1)
The Reign of David (1000-960)	102	(5)
David's Consolidation of Power	102	(3)
The Wars of David	105	(2)
The Reign of Solomon (960-922)	107	(3)
Solomon's Economic Policies	107	(1)
Solomon's Building Program	108	(2)
Solomon's Policies and Tribal Jealousy	110	(1)
Jerusalem: City of David and Solomon	110	(5)
Topography of Jerusalem	111	(1)
Caananite and Jebusite Jerusalem	112	(1)
David and Solomon's Jerusalem	112	(1)
Solomon's Temple	113	(2)
Chapter Ten: The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah	115	(27)
Introduction	115	(1)
Israel, the Northern Kingdom	115	(1)
Judah, the Southern Kingdom	115	(1)
The Division of the Kingdom	115	(7)
Early Conflicts and Invasions	122	(3)
The Egyptian Threat	122	(1)
The Aremean Threat	122	(3)
The House of Omri	125	(6)
The Policies of Omri and Ahab	125	(1)
Omri and the Phoenicians	126	(1)
Omri and Judah	126	(1)
Omri and the Transjordan	126	(1)
The Omrides' Building Achievements	127	(2)
Omri and Assyria	129	(2)
The Rise of the NeoAssyrian Empire	131	(3)
Assyrian Military Objectives	131	(1)
Ashur-Nasirpal II	132	(1)
Shalmaneser III	132	(2)
Assyria's Temporary Decline	134	(1)
Recovery of Israel and Judah	134	(1)
Renewed Assyrian Expansion	134	(8)
Tiglath-pileser III	134	(2)
Syro-Ephraimite War	136	(3)
Fall of Samaria	139	(3)
Chapter Eleven: Judah Alone Amid International Powers	142	(16)
The Assyrian Threat	142	(1)
Hezekiah's Independence Movement	142	(8)
Hezekiah's Reform	142	(1)
Hezekiah's Opportunity for Revolt	142	(1)
Hezekiah's Preparation for War	142	(2)
Hezekiah's Rebellion	144	(1)
Assyrian Attacks on Judah	144	(3)
The Seige of Jerusalem	147	(3)
Manasseh's Long Rule	150	(1)
Assyrian Supremacy Under Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal II	150	(1)
Esarhaddon	150	(1)
Ashurbanipal II	150	(1)
Victory over Egypt	150	(1)
Threats to the Assyrian Empire	150	(1)
Assyria's Fall	150	(2)
The Rival Powers and Assyria's Final Days	150	(2)
Egyptian Ambitions	152	(1)
The Kingdom of Josiah	153	(1)
Book of the Law Found	154	(1)
Josiah's Accomplishments	154	(1)
Josiah's Death	154	(1)
The Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Last Kings of Judah	154	(4)
Judah's Dilemna	155	(1)
First Campaign Against Jerusalem	156	(1)
The End of Judah and Jerusalem	156	(2)
Chapter Twelve: The Exile	158	(6)
Introduction	158	(1)
The Community in Judah	159	(1)
The Community in Babylon	160	(1)
The Community in Egypt	160	(4)
Chapter Thirteen: The Persian Period	164	(10)
Introduction	164	(1)
The Rise of Persia	165	(2)
Cyrus the Great	165	(1)
The Fall of Babylon	165	(2)
Darius I	167	(1)
Xerxes I	167	(1)
Artaxerxes I	167	(1)
The Return of the Exiles to Judah	167	(2)
First Return with Sheshbazzar	168	(1)
Zerubbabel and Joshua	169	(5)
Persian Administration	169	(5)
Judah, Samaria, and Their Neighbors	170	(1)
Province of Yehud	170	(2)
Renewal under Ezra and Nehemiah	172	(2)
Chapter Fourteen: The Hellenistic Period	174	(16)
Introduction	174	(2)
The Influx and Influence of Greek Culture	175	(1)
The Challenge of Hellenism	175	(1)
Campaigns of Alexander the Great	176	(1)
The Egyptian Phase	177	(1)
The Mesopotamian Phase	177	(1)
The Division of Alexander's Empire	177	(1)
Ptolemaic Rule in Palestine (301-200 B.C.)	178	(2)
Ptolemaic Policies	179	(1)
Alexandria	179	(1)
Palestine	179	(1)
The Seleucid Dynasty	180	(2)
Seleucid Policies	180	(1)
Antiochus III	181	(1)
Palestine Under Seleucid Rule	182	(3)
War with Rome	182	(1)
Antiochus IV	183	(1)
The Maccabean Revolt	183	(2)
The Hasmonean Dynasty	185	(5)
John Hyrcanus	187	(1)
Aristobulus I	187	(1)
Alexander Jannaeus	187	(1)
The End of Independence	187	(3)
PART THREE: The New Testament Era: The World of Jesus and the Early Church	190	(87)
Chapter Fifteen: Rome's Emergence as a World Power	190	(8)
Introduction	190	(1)
Rise of Rome	190	(1)
The Republican Period	190	(5)
Rome Gains Control of the Italian Peninsula	192	(1)
The Wars with Carthage (The Punic Wars)	192	(1)
Gaul	193	(1)
Eastward Expansion	193	(1)
Roman Civil Wars and the Rise of Augustus	193	(2)
The Age of Augustus: Foundation of an Empire (27 B.C.-A.D. 14)	195	(3)
Organization of an Empire	196	(1)
The Augustan Peace	196	(2)
Chapter Sixteen: The Romans, Palestine, and Herod the Great	198	(9)
Roman Intervention in Palestine (63-40 B.C.)	198	(1)
Pompey and the Conquest of Jerusalem	198	(1)
Roman Administration of Palestine	198	(1)
The Parthian Invasion	199	(1)
Herod the Great: Client King of Rome	199	(8)
Herod's Struggle for His Kingdom	199	(1)
Consolidation of Power	199	(1)
Herod's Building Program	199	(2)
Herod's Building Projects in Jerusalem	201	(1)
Herod's Final Years	201	(6)
Chapter Seventeen: The World of Jesus	207	(9)
The Roman Empire During Jesus' Ministry: The Reign of Tiberius	207	(1)
Politics of Palestine	207	(5)
Herod's Successors	207	(3)
The First Procuratorship A.D. 6-41	210	(2)
Jewish Religious Groups in the Roman Period	212	(4)
Pharisees	212	(1)
Sadducees	213	(1)
The Dead Sea Scroll Community	213	(3)
Chapter Eighteen: The Life and Ministry of Jesus	216	(20)
Introduction	216	(1)
The Birth of Jesus and His Childhood	217	(1)
John the Baptist's Message and Ministry	218	(1)
Galilee in Jesus' Day	219	(1)
Jesus' Early Ministry	220	(3)
Nazareth	220	(1)
Capernaum and Bethsaida	221	(1)
Villages Beyond the Sea of Galilee	222	(1)
Jesus Outside Galilee	223	(1)
The Way to Jerusalem	223	(3)
Samaria	223	(3)
Perean Ministry	226	(1)
Jesus in Judea and Jerusalem	226	(7)
The Last Week of Jesus	233	(3)
Chapter Nineteen: Early Expansion of the Church	236	(22)
The Roman Empire during the Early Expansion of the Church	236	(1)
Gaius Caligula (A.D. 37-41)	236	(1)
Claudius (A.D. 41-54)	236	(1)
Nero (A.D. 54-68)	236	(1)
The Politics of Palestine A.D. 41-66	237	(4)
The Kingdom of Herod Agrippa I	237	(2)
Agrippa II	239	(1)
Prelude to Revolution: The Second Procuratorship	239	(2)
Acts and the Progress of the Gospel in Palestine	241	(2)
Jewish Opposition in Jerusalem	242	(1)
Expansion beyond Jerusalem	243	(1)
The Ministry of Paul	243	(15)
Conversion and Early Years	243	(1)
The Church at Antioch	244	(1)
The Missionary Journeys	244	(12)
Paul's Voyage to Rome	256	(2)
Chapter Twenty: The First Jewish Revolt	258	(5)
Introduction	258	(1)
The Opposing Armies	258	(2)
The Campaign in Galilee	260	(1)
Unrest in Rome	260	(1)
The Campaign of Titus against Jerusalem	260	(2)
Final Jewish Resistance	262	(1)
Consequences of the Jewish Revolt	262	(1)
Chapter Twenty-One: The Christian Church from A.D. 70 to A.D. 300	263	(14)
The Emperors of Rome from A.D. 69 to 138	263	(7)
The Flavian Dynasty	263	(5)
Successors to the Flavian Dynasty	268	(2)
Life in Palestine and the Growth of the Church	270	(4)
The Bar Kokhba Revolt	274	(1)
Hadrian's New Jerusalem	275	(1)
The Expansion of Christianity into the Second Century	275	(2)
Factors Enchancing the Expansion of the Church	276	(1)
Asia Minor	276	(1)
The Leading Churches	276	(1)
Expansion of the Church of the East	276	(1)
Glossary	277	(2)
Bibliography	279	(6)
Indexes	285

Excerpts

THE FACE OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

Most of the biblical drama unfolded in the Ancient Near East. Today the modern states of Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Iran, and Turkey occupy that area. The Ancient Near East has been called the "Cradle of Civilization" because many important cultural and technological advances took place there. We now know that comparable innovations occurred in other parts of the world, yet the Near East retains a central place in human history. There the influence of three continents-Africa, Asia, and Europe-converge.

The Fertile Crescent

James Breasted coined the phrase "Fertile Crescent" to describe a band of land where conditions favored the establishment of early agricultural settlements. Water, either from rainfall or irrigation, and a favorable climate encouraged the development of village life. Stretching northwest from the Persian Gulf (the "Lower Sea"), the crescent includes the lands bordering the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers known as Mesopotamia. In southern Turkey the crescent bends south along the eastern Mediterranean coast. Here lies a narrow strip of land caught between the sea and desert called the Levant. Ancient Syria formed the northern half of the Levant, while Palestine occupied the southern portion. The intrusion of the Syro-Arabian Desert from the south gives the crescent its characteristic shape, while mountain ranges (Taurus, Kurdistan, and Zagros Mountains) mark the limits to the north and east.

Beyond the Sinai, south of the Fertile Crescent, lay Egypt. Favored by nature with the Nile River and its abundant water, Egypt played a vital part in the Ancient Near East. From about 3200 B.C., Egypt, like Mesopotamia, became a powerful center of civilization. Historically, the cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia dominated the history of the Ancient Near East, at least until the campaigns of Alexander the Great (334-323 B.C.).

The emergence of powerful and enduring civilizations in Egypt and Mesopotamia gave strategic importance to Palestine. Palestine was a "land bridge" linking the two great cultural centers. The major international route, the International Coastal Highway, crossed portions of Palestine. This geographical fact is crucial to the history of Palestine. As part of the corridor connecting Egypt and Mesopotamia, Palestine possessed a strategic importance far greater than its size or relatively few resources might suggest. Palestine sat astride the vital economic and military arteries of the Near East. Historically, this meant two things: (1) the people living in Palestine felt the imprint of many cultures, and (2) the major powers sought control of this small land.

Mesopotamia: Home of Abraham

Mesopotamia was an integral part of the biblical landscape in many periods. Genesis locates Abraham's homeland in Mesopotamia (Gen. 11-12). Mesopotamian kings from Assyria and Babylon appear frequently in the historical and prophetic books of the Old Testament. Jewish captives from Jerusalem spent many years in exile near Babylon. Descendants of those exiles were present at Pentecost.

Mesopotamia, literally the land "between the rivers," describes those lands bordering the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Today Iraq, northern Syria, and extreme southeastern Turkey occupy the area of ancient Mesopotamia. To the south and west the great expanse of the Syro-Arabian desert forms the border beyond which settled life based on agriculture is not possible. To the north and east, mountains ring Mesopotamia. In Bible times these mountains harbored less-advanced peoples who often threatened Mesopotamian kingdoms. Mesopotamia gave birth to many great civilizations, including the Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian.

TIGRIS AND EUPHRATES

The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers dominate Mesopotamia. Both rivers originate in the high mountains of eastern Turkey and flow south-southeastward to the Persian Gulf. Large distances separate the rivers for most of their journey, but near Baghdad they converge to within twenty miles of each other before diverging again. Near the head of the Persian Gulf, the rivers merge into a marshland, a feature characteristic of both ancient and modern times. The Euphrates (1,780 miles long) is longer and slower than the Tigris, but more suited for transportation. Two major tributaries, the Balikh and Habor, join the Euphrates in northwest Mesopotamia. The Tigris (1,150 miles long) is much swifter, descending through the steppes running parallel to the Zagros Mountains. Four tributaries-the Greater and Lesser Zab, the Adhem, and the Diyala-enter the Tigris from these mountains. The influence of the Tigris and Euphrates, with their tributaries, is such that virtually all important cities of Mesopotamia can be found along their courses. Indeed, whenever a river changed its course, as the Euphrates on occasion did, it isolated the cities, which then declined or were abandoned for economic reasons.

Both the Tigris and Euphrates flooded annually. Autumn and winter rains in combination with melting snows of the high northern mountains produced a large volume of water that had to be harnessed. This inundation was unpredictable, at times being inadequate and at other times, violent. The timing of the flood in Mesopotamia was not as helpful for agriculture as in Egypt. Consequently, the inhabitants of central and southern Mesopotamia maintained a sophisticated system of canals, dikes, and dams from earliest times to protect their cities and to distribute water to thirsty fields. Ancient flood stories like the Gilgamesh Epic abounded in Mesopotamia. They expressed the ancients' fascination with and fear of these floods.

NORTH AND SOUTH MESOPOTAMIA

Northern and southern Mesopotamia differ in terms of geography, climate, and natural resources. The dividing line between the two sections is roughly near modern Baghdad. The southern portion from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf (approximately 350 miles by scale) is a flat plain formed by sediments deposited by the rivers and soil blown from the desert. Summers here are very hot (95°F average in July), but winters are mild. Rainfall is scarce, decreasing the farther south one goes; thus crops have depended entirely on irrigation. Still visible from the air are the numerous irrigation canals, long since silted up, required for agriculture. This intense irrigation and flooding resulted in an increase in the salt content of the land (salinization), which eventually hindered crop production.

Southern Mesopotamia lacks many resources. Few building materials were available; houses, temples, and palaces were all built of mud brick. Metals and timber had to be imported. However, the irrigated fields produced excellent crops of barley, the basic staple used for cakes and beer, and some wheat. Dates, which grew in abundance, and sesame oil supplied essential carbohydrates for the diet. Fish from the marshlands and rivers provided much of the meat. Properly utilized, this land supported a significant population, with surpluses for export. Successively, the Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian civilizations arose in southern Mesopotamia, bequeathing a great cultural heritage to the Near East. Cities like Babylon and Ur testify to the land's vitality.

North of Baghdad, uplands and steppes contrast with the flat plain of the south. Rolling hills emerge from the high mountains that border Mesopotamia to the north. Rainfall amounts are higher here, with some sections receiving up to twenty inches annually, although many areas receive much less. The summers are somewhat milder than in the south, but winters are harsher due to higher elevations.

Near Mosul in the Middle Tigris Valley, Asshur, Nineveh, and Calah (Nimrud) mark the heartland of ancient Assyria. Timber and building stones offered royal architects materials for the impressive palaces, temples, and administrative centers of the Assyrian kings; however, common people used mud brick for their houses.

Portions of Assyria produced crops of barley and wheat, but seldom in quantities to be totally self-sufficient. Also, the metals necessary for weapons and implements-copper, iron, tin, zinc, and lead-had to be imported along with cedar and supplemental food supplies. This meant that the Assyrians often sought to expand their control southward to Babylonia or westward to the Mediterranean Sea to obtain vital commodities through major trade routes.

Due west of Assyria lay northwest Mesopotamia with its grassy steppes and fertile lands associated with the Balikh and Habor Rivers. Abundant winter rains, a high water table, and numerous small streams make this region especially attractive for raising cattle and sheep. The Bible associates Abraham closely with this region. The biblical term Aram-naharaim (Gen. 24:10; Deut. 23:4), often translated "Mesopotamia," refers to the land of the Balikh and Habor Rivers.

Egypt: Land of Bondage

As the home of one of the world's enduring civilizations, Egypt looms large on the biblical landscape. For over three thousand years Egyptian history unfolded, casting its spell over the ancient world. By the time Abraham journeyed to Egypt, the pharaohs had ruled for over a thousand years. With its close geographical proximity, this ancient culture left a deep impression on the people of Palestine. The biblical references concerning Joseph and Moses illustrate the interconnections between the lands. Egyptian kings repeatedly meddled in the affairs of Palestine, attempting to exploit key trade routes and maintain a buffer zone of security.

THE TWO LANDS

The land that spawned such a vital civilization is geographically unique. Egypt is "the gift of the Nile," observed the Greek historian Herodotus in the fifth century B.C. The waters of the Nile extend like a finger of life through the stone and sand of North Africa's deserts. From the first cataract near Aswan northward 750 miles to the Mediterranean Sea, ancient Egypt comprised the arable land touched by the Nile.

Geographically, Egypt consisted of two distinct parts, with the dividing line near modern Cairo. North of Cairo, the Nile formed a great Delta composed of deep alluvial sediments deposited through the millennia. Several branches of the Nile flowed through the Delta, or "Lower Egypt," in antiquity, although only two remain today. Dense undergrowth prevented development in earlier times, but eventually several key cities emerged, such as Sais, Bubastis, and the biblical store cities of Pithom and Raamses (Exod. 1:11). The northeastern Delta, the part of Egypt most readily accessible to Palestine, is the land of Goshen to which the patriarchs frequently traveled (Gen. 45:9-11; 46:31ff).

South of Cairo, the encroaching deserts restrict settlement to the Nile Valley, a narrow ribbon of land affected by the annual flood on either side of the river. The Nile Valley, or "Upper Egypt," never is more than a few miles wide. Scattered along the banks of the Nile, the great Egyptian cities with their monumental temples still inspire awe. Abydos, Edfu, and especially Thebes (biblical No-amon), with its temple of Amon-Re, embodied the power of Egypt in her era of greatest strength. Opposite Thebes in the cliffs of the western desert, the pharaohs of the New Kingdom carved their tombs in the Valley of the Kings. These Egyptian cities tended to be smaller than their Mesopotamian counterparts; in fact, most Egyptians lived in small villages. Still, through the centuries Egypt's monumental architecture, not normal village life, has gripped the imaginations of historian and poet alike.

THE GIFT OF THE NILE

Egypt's greatest resource was the Nile, which linked the cities and villages along its length. The Nile provided transportation and communication as the principal highway of the land. Natural currents carried traffic northward, while prevailing north winds permitted travel upriver (southward). The annual inundation of the Nile provided the river's chief benefit to the land. Each year, with uncanny regularity, the Nile flooded, replenishing the land with water and a thin layer of new soil. The causes of this unique phenomenon are found far to the south of Egypt.

The Nile is a composite river that draws water from several different streams. The White Nile provides a steady source of water from the lakes of equatorial Africa that are fed by constant rains. Near Khartoum in the Sudan, two other rivers-the Blue Nile and the Atbara-join the White Nile. During the spring, melting snows and rains in the Ethiopian highlands swell the Blue Nile and the Atbara with water, their swift currents carrying soil and organic materials. The Nile rises as their waters rush northward toward the Mediterranean.

From July to September the waters covered the land along the river's banks, soaking the fields and depositing a layer of rich silt. When the waters retreated, the Egyptian farmers reestablished the boundaries of their fields and prepared the land for planting. Since all agriculture depended on the annual flood, the Egyptians developed devices (Nilometers) to predict its height. A rise of seven to eight meters was ideal. A higher flood could be destructive, while a rise of less than six meters could provoke a famine like that mentioned in Genesis 41:53.

The annual inundation of the Nile was one of several factors that gave stability to Egyptian civilization. A favorable climate was another. Although rainfall is sparse throughout the land and summer temperatures can be very hot, the long sunny days and mild winters were ideal for growing crops. Egypt was immune from the storms and extreme variations of climate found in other parts of the Near East. Moreover, deserts bordered the land of Egypt on the east and west, while the Mediterranean Sea was an effective barrier to the north.

Six cataracts in the Nile River to the south, protected by strategically fortified garrisons, controlled any approach to Egypt from that direction. Access to Egypt came primarily through the northeast Delta. Here the great trade routes crossing the Sinai from Palestine entered Egypt, linking the land with the other cultures of the Near East. Those same trade routes could be used to attack Egypt as well. Consequently, the Egyptians repeatedly sought to extend their control beyond Sinai into Palestine and Syria, thereby ensuring security and an enduring connection to vital goods.

The Levant

The term "Levant" describes the habitable land along the eastern Mediterranean coast sandwiched between the Mediterranean Sea on the west and the Syro-Arabian Desert to the east. Syria and Lebanon comprised the northern sections of the Levant while Palestine (see chap. 2) anchored the southern end.

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Excerpted from HOLMAN BIBLE ATLAS by Thomas C. Brisco Copyright © 1998 by Thomas Brisco
Excerpted by permission. All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.