Introduction to Behavioral Research Methods

by Leary, Mark R.

• ISBN13: 9780205322046
• ISBN10: 0205322042
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2000-06-01
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

Taking into consideration the four basic approaches to behavioral research (descriptive research, correlational research, experimental research, and quasi-experimental research), "Introduction to Behavioral Research Methods" shows students how to conceptualize questions, measure variables, design studies, and analyze data.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
Research in the Behavioral Sciences	1	(32)
The Beginnings of Behavioral Research	2	(2)
Goals of Behavioral Research	4	(2)
Describing Behavior	4	(1)
Explaining Behavior	4	(1)
Predicting Behavior	5	(1)
Solving Behavioral Problems	5	(1)
Four Goals or One?	5	(1)
The Value of Research to the Student	6	(1)
The Scientific Approach	7	(3)
Systematic Empiricism	8	(1)
Public Verification	8	(1)
Solvable Problems	9	(1)
Behavioral Science and Common Sense	10	(1)
Philosophy of Science	11	(2)
The Role of Theory in Science	13	(1)
Research Hypotheses	14	(2)
A Priori Predictions and Post Hoc Explanations	16	(1)
Conceptual and Operational Definitions	16	(3)
Proof and Disproof in Science	19	(4)
The Logical Impossibility of Proof	19	(1)
The Practical Impossibility of Disproof	20	(1)
If Not Proof or Disproof, Then What?	20	(3)
Strategies of Behavioral Research	23	(2)
Descriptive Research	23	(1)
Correlational Research	23	(1)
Experimental Research	24	(1)
Quasi-Experimental Research	24	(1)
Domains of Behavioral Science	25	(2)
A Preview	27	(1)
Summary	28	(5)
Behavioral Variability and Research	33	(20)
Variability and the Research Process	34	(3)
Variance: An Index of Variability	37	(5)
A Conceptual Explanation of Variance	38	(1)
A Statistical Explanation of Variance	39	(3)
Systematic and Error Variance	42	(4)
Systematic Variance	42	(1)
Error Variance	43	(2)
Distinguishing Systematic from Error Variance	45	(1)
Assessing the Strength of Relationships	46	(1)
Meta-Analysis: Systematic Variance Across Studies	47	(2)
Summary	49	(4)
The Measurement of Behavior	53	(24)
Types of Measures	54	(2)
Scales of Measurement	56	(1)
Estimating the Reliability of a Measure	57	(8)
Measurement Error	58	(1)
Reliability as Systematic Variance	59	(1)
Assessing Reliability	60	(4)
Increasing the Reliability of Measures	64	(1)
Estimating the Validity of a Measure	65	(6)
Assessing Validity	65	(6)
Fairness and Bias in Measurement	71	(2)
Summary	73	(4)
Approaches to Psychological Measurement	77	(27)
Observational Methods	78	(7)
Naturalistic Versus Contrived Settings	78	(2)
Disguised Versus Nondisguised Observation	80	(2)
Behavioral Recording	82	(3)
Increasing the Reliability of Observational Methods	85	(1)
Physiological Measures	85	(1)
Self-Report: Questionnaires and Interviews	86	(11)
Writing Questions	86	(5)
Questionnaires	91	(2)
Interviews	93	(1)
Advantages of Questionnaires Versus Interviews	94	(1)
Biases in Self-Report Measurement	94	(3)
Archival Data	97	(2)
Content Analysis	99	(1)
Summary	100	(4)
Descriptive Research	104	(32)
Types of Descriptive Research	105	(4)
Surveys	105	(2)
Demographic Research	107	(1)
Epidemiological Research	108	(1)
Summary	108	(1)
Sampling	109	(10)
Probability Samples	109	(7)
Nonprobability Samples	116	(3)
Describing and Presenting Data	119	(12)
Criteria of a Good Description	119	(1)
Frequency Distributions	120	(5)
Measures of Central Tendency	125	(1)
Measures of Variability	126	(1)
Standard Deviation and the Normal Curve	127	(3)
The z-Score	130	(1)
Summary	131	(5)
Correlational Research	136	(26)
The Correlation Coefficient	138	(1)
A Graphic Representation of Correlations	139	(3)
The Coefficient of Determination	142	(4)
Statistical Significance of r	146	(2)
Factors That Distort Correlation Coefficients	148	(4)
Restricted Range	148	(2)
Outliers	150	(2)
Reliability of Measures	152	(1)
Correlation and Causality	152	(3)
Partial Correlation	155	(1)
Other Correlation Coefficients	156	(1)
Summary	157	(5)
Advanced Correlational Strategies	162	(22)
Predicting Behavior: Regression Strategies	162	(9)
Linear Regression	163	(2)
Types of Multiple Regression	165	(5)
Multiple Correlation	170	(1)
Assessing Directionality: Cross-Lagged and Structural Equations Analysis	171	(4)
Cross-Lagged Panel Design	171	(1)
Structural Equations Modeling	172	(3)
Uncovering Underlying Dimensions: Factor Analysis	175	(4)
An Intuitive Approach	176	(1)
Basics of Factor Analysis	176	(2)
Uses of Factor Analysis	178	(1)
Summary	179	(5)
Basic Issues in Experimental Research	184	(34)
Manipulating the Independent Variable	186	(5)
Independent Variables	186	(4)
Dependent Variables	190	(1)
Assignment of Participants of Conditions	191	(6)
Simple Random Assignment	191	(1)
Matched Random Assignment	192	(1)
Repeated Measures Designs	193	(4)
Experimental Control	197	(3)
Systematic Variance	197	(1)
Error Variance	198	(1)
An Analogy	199	(1)
Eliminating Confounds	200	(8)
Internal Validity	200	(1)
Threats to Internal Validity	201	(4)
Experimenter Expectancies, Demand Characteristics, and Placebo Effects	205	(3)
Error Variance	208	(3)
Sources of Error Variance	208	(3)
Experimental Control and Generalizability: The Experimenter's Dilemma	211	(1)
Summary	212	(6)
Experimental Design	218	(25)
One-Way Designs	219	(5)
Assigning Participants to Conditions	220	(1)
Posttest and Pretest-Posttest Designs	221	(3)
Factorial Designs	224	(6)
Factorial Nomenclature	225	(3)
Assigning Participants to Conditions	228	(2)
Main Effects and Interactions	230	(5)
Main Effects	230	(1)
Interactions	231	(3)
Higher-Order Designs	234	(1)
Combining Independent and Subject Variables	235	(4)
Summary	239	(4)
Analyzing Experimental Data	243	(19)
An Intuitive Approach to Analysis	244	(2)
The Problem: Error Variance Can Cause Mean Differences	245	(1)
The Solution: Inferential Statistics	245	(1)
Hypothesis Testing	246	(4)
The Null Hypothesis	246	(1)
Type I and Type II Errors	247	(3)
Effect Size	250	(1)
Summary	250	(1)
Analysis of Two-Group Experiments: The t-Test	250	(6)
Conducting a t-Test	251	(4)
Back to the Droodles Experiment	255	(1)
Analyses of Matched-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs	256	(1)
Summary	257	(5)
Analyzing Complex Designs	262	(20)
The Problem: Multiple Tests Inflate Type I Error	263	(1)
The Rationale Behind ANOVA	264	(1)
How ANOVA Works	265	(6)
Total Sum of Squares	265	(1)
Sum of Squares Within-Groups	266	(1)
Sum of Squares Between-Groups	267	(1)
The F-Test	267	(1)
Extension of ANOVA to Factorial Designs	268	(3)
Follow-Up Tests	271	(3)
Main Effects	271	(1)
Interactions	272	(2)
Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects ANOVAs	274	(1)
Multivariate Analysis of Variance	274	(3)
Conceptually Related Dependent Variables	275	(1)
Inflation of Type I Error	275	(1)
How MANOVA Works	276	(1)
Experimental and Nonexperimental Uses of Inferential Statistics	277	(1)
Computer Analyses	278	(1)
Summary	279	(3)
Quasi-Experimental Designs	282	(24)
Pretest-Posttest Designs	284	(7)
How NOT to Do a Study: The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design	285	(1)
Nonequivalent Control Group Design	286	(5)
Time Series Designs	291	(5)
Simple Interrupted Time Series Design	291	(3)
Interrupted Time Series with a Reversal	294	(1)
Control Group Interrupted Time Series Design	295	(1)
Longitudinal Designs	296	(2)
Program Evaluation	298	(2)
Evaluating Quasi-Experimental Designs	300	(3)
Threats to Internal Validity	300	(2)
Increasing Confidence in Quasi-Experimental Results	302	(1)
Summary	303	(3)
Single-Case Research	306	(23)
Single-Case Experimental Designs	308	(13)
Criticisms of Group Designs and Analyses	309	(3)
Basic Single-Case Experimental Designs	312	(4)
Data from Single-Participant Designs	316	(2)
Uses of Single-Case Experimental Designs	318	(2)
Critique of Single-Participant Designs	320	(1)
Case Study Research	321	(4)
Uses of the Case Study Method	322	(1)
Limitations of the Case Study Approach	323	(2)
Summary	325	(4)
Ethical Issues in Behavioral Research	329	(24)
Approaches to Ethical Decisions	330	(2)
Basic Ethical Guidelines	332	(3)
Potential Benefits	333	(1)
Potential Costs	334	(1)
Balancing Benefits and Costs	334	(1)
The Institutional Review Board	334	(1)
The principle of Informed Consent	335	(3)
Obtaining Informed Consent	335	(1)
Problems with Obtaining Informed Consent	336	(2)
Invasion of Privacy	338	(1)
Coercion to Participate	339	(1)
Physical and Mental Stress	339	(1)
Deception in Research	340	(2)
Objections to Deception	340	(1)
Debriefing	341	(1)
Confidentiality in Research	342	(2)
Common Courtesy	344	(1)
Ethical Principles in Research with Animals	345	(2)
Scientific Misconduct	347	(3)
A Final Note	350	(1)
Summary	350	(3)
Scientific Writing	353	(46)
How Scientific Findings Are Disseminated	353	(4)
Journal Publication	354	(1)
Presentations at Professional Meetings	355	(1)
Personal Contact	356	(1)
Elements of Good Scientific Writing	357	(5)
Organization	357	(1)
Clarity	358	(2)
Conciseness	360	(1)
Proofreading and Rewriting	361	(1)
Avoiding Biased Language	362	(2)
Gender-Neutral Language	362	(2)
Other Language Pitfalls	364	(1)
Parts of a Manuscript	364	(6)
Title Page	365	(1)
Abstract	366	(1)
Introduction	367	(1)
Method	367	(1)
Results	368	(1)
Discussion	369	(1)
Citing and Referencing Previous Research	370	(3)
Citations in the Text	370	(1)
The Reference List	371	(2)
Other Aspects of APA Style	373	(4)
Optional Sections	373	(1)
Headings, Spacing, Pagination, and Numbers	374	(3)
Sample Manuscript	377	(22)
Glossary	399	(12)
Appendix A Statistical Tables	411	(7)
Appendix B Computational Formulas for ANOVA	418	(9)
References	427	(8)
Index	435