Introduction to Language

by Fromkin, Victoria

• ISBN13: 9780030186820
• ISBN10: 003018682X
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1997-08-18
• Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing

Table of Contents

Preface	ix
Part 1 The Nature of Human Language	4	(61)
Chapter 1 What Is Language?	4	(30)
Linguistic Knowledge	4	(8)
Knowledge of the Sound System	4	(1)
Knowledge of Words	5	(1)
Arbitrary Relation of Form and Meaning	5	(4)
The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge	9	(2)
Knowledge of Sentences and Nonsentences	11	(1)
Linguistic Knowledge and Performance	12	(2)
What Is Grammar?	14	(4)
Descriptive Grammars	14	(1)
Prescriptive Grammars	15	(2)
Teaching Grammars	17	(1)
Language Universals	18	(4)
Sign Language: Evidence for Language Universals	20	(1)
American Sign Language (ASL)	21	(1)
Animal "Languages"	22	(4)
"Talking" Parrots	23	(1)
The Birds and the Bees	24	(2)
What We Know about Language	26	(1)
Summary	27	(2)
References for Further Reading	28	(1)
Exercises	29	(5)
Chapter 2 Brain and Language	34	(31)
The Human Brain	34	(15)
The Modularity of the Brain	35	(3)
Evidence from Childhood Brain Lesions	38	(2)
Split Brains	40	(2)
More Experimental Evidence	42	(1)
More Evidence for Modularity	43	(1)
Aphasia	44	(4)
Distinct Categories of Conceptual Knowledge	48	(1)
The Autonomy of Language	49	(2)
Asymmetry of Abilities	49	(1)
Laura	49	(1)
Christopher	50	(1)
Genetic Evidence for Language Autonomy	51	(1)
The Evolution of Language	51	(5)
In the Beginning: The Origin of Language	51	(2)
God's Gift to Mankind?	53	(1)
The First Language	53	(1)
Human Invention or the Cries of Nature?	54	(1)
The Development of Language in the Species	55	(1)
Summary	56	(2)
References for Further Reading	58	(1)
Exercises	58	(7)
Part 2 Grammatical Aspects of Language	65	(253)
Chapter 3 Morphology: The Words of Language	65	(41)
Dictionaries	65	(2)
Classes of Words	67	(1)
Lexical Content Words	67	(1)
Function Words	67	(1)
Morphemes: The Minimal Units of Meaning	68	(7)
Bound and Free Morphemes	70	(1)
Prefixes and Suffixes	71	(1)
Infixes	72	(1)
Circumfixes	73	(1)
Huckles and Ceives	73	(2)
Rules of Word Formation	75	(6)
Lexical Gaps	76	(1)
Derivational Morphology	76	(4)
"Pullet Surprises"	80	(1)
Sign Language Morphology	81	(1)
Word Coinage	82	(7)
Compounds	83	(2)
Meaning of Compounds	85	(1)
Universality of Compounding	86	(1)
Acronyms	86	(1)
Back-Formations	87	(1)
Abbreviations	88	(1)
Words from Names	88	(1)
Blends	89	(1)
Grammatical Morphemes	89	(6)
Inflectional Morphemes	90	(2)
Exceptions and Suppletions	92	(1)
Morphology and Syntax	93	(2)
Morphological Analysis: Identifying Morphemes	95	(1)
Summary	96	(2)
References for Further Reading	98	(1)
Exercises	98	(8)
Chapter 4 Syntax: The Sentence Patterns of Language	106	(52)
Grammatical or Ungrammatical?	106	(3)
What Grammaticality Is Based On	107	(1)
What Grammaticality Is Not Based On	108	(1)
What Else Do You Know about Syntax?	109	(2)
Sentence Structure	111	(9)
Syntactic Categories	112	(2)
Phrase Structure Trees	114	(2)
More Phrase Structure Trees	116	(2)
The Infinitude of Language	118	(2)
Phrase Structure Rules	120	(13)
Growing Trees: The Relationship between Phrase Structure Rules and Phrase Structure Trees	122	(4)
Trees That Won't Grow	126	(2)
Rules in Other Languages	128	(1)
More Phrase Structure Rules	129	(4)
The Lexicon	133	(3)
Subcategorization	134	(1)
More Lexical Differences	135	(1)
Sentence Relatedness	136	(9)
Transformational Rules	137	(6)
Long-Distance Relationships	143	(1)
"Wh-" Sentences	144	(1)
More about Sentence Structure	145	(3)
Sign Language Syntax	147	(1)
Summary	148	(1)
References for Further Reading	148	(1)
Exercises	149	(9)
Chapter 5 The Meanings of Language	158	(55)
Lexical Semantics (Word Meanings)	158	(13)
Semantic Properties	159	(1)
Evidence for Semantic Properties	160	(1)
Semantic Properties and the Lexicon	161	(1)
More Semantic Relationships	162	(1)
-nyms	162	(1)
Homonyms and Polysemy	163	(2)
Synonyms	165	(1)
Antonyms	166	(1)
Formation of Antonyms	167	(1)
Hyponyms	168	(1)
Metonyms	168	(1)
Retronyms	168	(1)
Proper Names	168	(3)
Phrase and Sentence Meaning	171	(13)
Phrasal Meaning	172	(1)
Noun-Centered Meaning	172	(2)
Sense and Reference	174	(1)
Verb-Centered Meaning	175	(1)
Thematic Roles	175	(2)
Thematic Roles in Other Languages	177	(1)
The Theta-Criterion	178	(1)
Sentential Meaning	178	(1)
The "Truth" of Sentences	178	(1)
Paraphrase	179	(1)
Entailment	180	(1)
Contradiction	180	(1)
When Semantics and Syntax Meet	181	(1)
Words versus Phrases	181	(1)
When Passives Do Not Work	182	(1)
Pronouns and Coreferentiality	183	(1)
When Rules Are Broken	184	(6)
Anomaly: No Sense and Nonsense	184	(3)
Metaphor	187	(1)
Idioms	188	(2)
Pragmatics	190	(11)
Linguistic Context: Discourse	191	(1)
Pronouns	191	(1)
Anaphora	192	(1)
Missing Parts	193	(1)
The Articles The and A	194	(1)
Situational Context	195	(1)
Maxims of Conversation	195	(2)
Speech Acts	197	(1)
Presuppositions	198	(1)
Deixis	199	(2)
Summary	201	(3)
References for Further Reading	203	(1)
Exercises	204	(9)
Chapter 6 Phonetics: The Sounds of Language	213	(41)
Sound Segments	213	(3)
Identity of Speech Sounds	215	(1)
Spelling and Speech	216	(5)
The Phonetic Alphabet	218	(3)
Articulatory Phonetics	221	(21)
Airstream Mechanisms	222	(1)
Consonants	223	(1)
Places of Articulation	223	(1)
Bilabials: [p] [b] [m]	223	(1)
Labiodentals: [f] [v]	224	(1)
Interdentals: [Theta] [XXX]	224	(1)
Alveolars: [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r]	224	(1)
Palatals: [XXX] [3]/[XXX] [XXX] [XXX] [XXX]	224	(1)
Velars: [k] [g] [n]	224	(1)
Uvulars: [R] [q] [G]	224	(1)
Glottal: [?] [h]	224	(1)
Manners of Articulation	225	(1)
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds	225	(1)
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds	226	(2)
Nasal and Oral Sounds	228	(1)
Stops: [p] [b] [m] [t] [d] [n] [k] [g] [n] [XXX] [XXX] [?]	229	(1)
Fricatives: [s] [z] [f] [v] [Theta] [XXX] [XXX] [XXX]	230	(1)
Affricates	231	(1)
Liquids: [l] [r]	232	(1)
Glides: [j] [w]	232	(1)
Phonetic Symbols for American English Consonants	233	(1)
Vowels	234	(1)
Tongue Position	235	(1)
Lip Rounding	236	(1)
Diphthongs	236	(1)
Nasalization of Vowels	237	(1)
Tense and Lax Vowels	238	(1)
Dialect Differences	238	(1)
Major Classes	239	(1)
Noncontinuants and Continuants	239	(1)
Obstruents and Sonorants	239	(1)
Consonants and Vowels	239	(1)
Labials: [p] [b] [m] [f] [v]	239	(1)
Coronals: [d] [t] [n] [s] [z] [XXX] [XXX] [XXX] [XXX]	239	(1)
Anterior	240	(1)
Sibilants: [S] [Z] [XXX] [XXX] [XXX] [XXX]	240	(1)
Syllabic Sounds	240	(1)
Prosodic Suprasegmental Features	240	(1)
Tone and Intonation	240	(2)
Diacritics	242	(1)
Phonetic Symbols and Spelling Correspondences	243	(2)
Sign-Language Primes	245	(2)
Summary	247	(1)
References for Further Reading	248	(1)
Exercises	248	(6)
Chapter 7 Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language	254	(64)
Phonemes: The Phonological Units of Language	254	(8)
Sounds That Contrast	254	(1)
Minimal Pairs	255	(2)
Free Variation	257	(1)
Minimal Pairs in ASL	258	(1)
Phonemes, Phones, and Allophones	259	(2)
Complementary Distribution	261	(1)
Distinctive Features	262	(7)
Feature Values	262	(2)
Predictability of Redundant (Nondistinctive) Features	264	(2)
Unpredictability of Phonemic Features	266	(1)
More on Redundancies	267	(2)
Syllable Structure	269	(1)
Sequential Constraints	269	(2)
Lexical Gaps	271	(1)
Natural Classes	271	(3)
Feature Specifications for American English Consonants and Vowels	273	(1)
More on Prosodic Phonology	274	(5)
Intonation	274	(2)
Word Stress	276	(2)
Sentence and Phrase Stress	278	(1)
The Rules of Phonology	279	(14)
Assimilation Rules	280	(3)
Feature Changing Rules	283	(1)
Dissimilation Rules	284	(1)
Feature Addition Rules	284	(1)
Segment Deletion and Addition Rules	285	(2)
Movement (Metathesis) Rules	287	(1)
From One to Many and from Many to One	288	(3)
The Function of Phonological Rules	291	(1)
Slips of the Tongue: Evidence for Phonological Rules	292	(1)
The Pronunciation of Morphemes	293	(7)
Morphophonemics	295	(2)
More Sequential Constraints	297	(3)
Phonological Analysis: Discovering Phonemes	300	(3)
Summary	303	(3)
References for Further Reading	305	(1)
Exercises	306	(12)
Part 3 The Psychology of Language	318	(81)
Chapter 8 Language Acquisition	318	(43)
Stages in Language Acquisition	318	(10)
The First Sounds	319	(1)
Babbling	320	(1)
First Words	321	(3)
The Two-Word Stage	324	(1)
From Telegraph to Infinity	325	(3)
Theories of Child Language Acquisition	328	(1)
Do Children Learn by Imitation?	328	(1)
Do Children Learn by Reinforcement?	329	(1)
Do Children Learn Language by Analogy?	330	(1)
Children Form Rules and Construct a Grammar	331	(2)
Errors or Rules?	333	(1)
The Acquisition of Phonology	333	(1)
Acquisition of Morphology	334	(2)
The Acquisition of Syntax	336	(1)
Learning the Meaning of Words	337	(2)
The Biological Foundations of Language Acquisition	339	(7)
The "Innateness Hypothesis"	339	(3)
The "Critical-Age Hypothesis"	342	(2)
The Acquisition of Bird Songs	344	(1)
The Acquisition of ASL	345	(1)
Learning a Second (or Third or ...) Language	346	(4)
Theories of Second-Language Acquisition	348	(1)
Second-Language Teaching Methods	349	(1)
Can Chimps Learn Human Language?	350	(5)
Gua	351	(1)
Viki	351	(1)
Washoe	351	(1)
Sarah	351	(1)
Learning Yerkish	352	(1)
Koko	352	(1)
Nim Chimpsky	353	(1)
Clever Hans	354	(1)
Kanzi	355	(1)
Summary	355	(3)
References for Further Reading	357	(1)
Exercises	358	(3)
Chapter 9 Language Processing: Humans and Computer	361	(38)
The Human Mind at Work: Human Language Processing	361	(12)
Comprehension	363	(1)
The Speech Signal	363	(2)
Speech Perception and Comprehension	365	(2)
Comprehension Models and Experimental Studies	367	(1)
Lexical Access and Word Recognition	367	(2)
Syntactic Processing	369	(1)
Speech Production	370	(1)
Planning Units	370	(1)
Lexical Selection	371	(1)
Application and Misapplication of Rules	372	(1)
Nonlinguistic Influences	373	(1)
Silicon at Work: Computer Processing of Human Language	373	(15)
Machine Translation	374	(1)
Text Processing	375	(1)
Computers That Talk and Listen	376	(1)
Talking Machines (Speech Synthesis)	377	(2)
Knowing What to Say	379	(2)
Machines for Understanding Speech	381	(1)
Speech Recognition	382	(1)
Speech Understanding	383	(1)
Parsing	383	(3)
Semantic Processing	386	(1)
Pragmatic Processing	387	(1)
Computer Models of Grammars	388	(1)
Summary	389	(3)
References for Further Reading	391	(1)
Exercises	392	(7)
Part 4 Language in Society	399	(120)
Chapter 10 Language in Society	399	(51)
Dialects	399	(3)
Regional Dialects	400	(1)
Accents	401	(1)
Dialects of English	402	(5)
Phonological Differences	403	(1)
Lexical Differences	404	(1)
Dialect Atlases	404	(2)
Syntactic Differences	406	(1)
The "Standard"	407	(5)
Language Purists	408	(1)
Banned Languages	409	(2)
The Revival of Languages	411	(1)
African American English (AAE)	412	(5)
Phonology of African American English	413	(1)
R-Deletion	413	(1)
L-Deletion	413	(1)
Consonant Cluster Simplification	413	(1)
Neutralization of [i] and [XXX] before Nasals	414	(1)
/XXX/ /XXX/	414	(1)
Loss of Interdental Fricatives	414	(1)
Syntactic Differences between AAE and SAE	414	(1)
Double Negatives	414	(1)
Deletion of the Verb "Be"	415	(1)
Habitual "Be"	415	(1)
History of African American English	416	(1)
Latino (Hispanic) English	417	(3)
Chicano English (ChE)	419	(1)
Phonological Variables of ChE	419	(1)
Syntactic Variables in ChE	420	(1)
Lingua Francas	420	(1)
Pidgins and Creoles	421	(4)
Pidgins	422	(3)
Creoles	425	(1)
Styles, Slang, and Jargon	425	(3)
Styles	425	(1)
Slang	426	(1)
Jargon and Argot	427	(1)
Taboo or Not Taboo?	428	(6)
Euphemisms	432	(1)
Racial and National Epithets	433	(1)
Language, Sex, and Gender	434	(5)
Marked and Unmarked Forms	435	(2)
The Generic "He"	437	(1)
Language and Gender	438	(1)
Secret Languages and Language Games	439	(1)
Summary	440	(3)
References for Further Reading	442	(1)
Exercises	443	(7)
Chapter 11 Language Change: The Syllables of Time	450	(42)
The Regularity of Sound Change	450	(6)
Sound Correspondences	451	(1)
Ancestral Protolanguages	451	(1)
Phonological Change	452	(4)
Phonological Rules	453	(1)
The Great Vowel Shift	454	(2)
Morphological Change	456	(1)
Syntactic Change	457	(2)
Lexical Change	459	(5)
Borrowings	459	(1)
History and Borrowed Words	460	(2)
New Words	462	(1)
Loss of Words	462	(1)
Semantic Change	463	(1)
Broadening	463	(1)
Narrowing	463	(1)
Meaning Shifts	463	(1)
Reconstructing "Dead" Languages	464	(8)
The Nineteenth-Century Comparativists	464	(1)
Cognates	465	(2)
Comparative Reconstruction	467	(3)
Historical Evidence	470	(2)
Extinct and Endangered Languages	472	(1)
The Genetic Classification of Languages	473	(5)
Languages of the World	476	(2)
Types of Languages	478	(2)
Why Do Languages Change?	480	(2)
Summary	482	(1)
References for Further Reading	483	(1)
Exercises	483	(9)
Chapter 12 Writing: The ABCs of Language	492	(27)
The History of Writing	492	(7)
Pictograms and Ideograms	493	(2)
Cuneiform Writing	495	(2)
The Rebus Principle	497	(1)
From Hieroglyphs to the Alphabet	498	(1)
Modern Writing Systems	499	(6)
Word Writing	499	(1)
Syllabic Writing	500	(2)
Consonantal Alphabet Writing	502	(1)
Alphabetic Writing	502	(3)
Reading, Writing, and Speech	505	(7)
Reading	507	(1)
Spelling	507	(4)
Spelling Pronunciations	511	(1)
Summary	512	(1)
References for Further Reading	513	(1)
Exercises	513	(6)
Glossary	519	(22)
Index	541