An Introduction to Language

by Fromkin, Victoria; Rodman, Robert; Hyams, Nina

• ISBN13: 9780155084810
• ISBN10: 015508481X
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2002-08-02
• Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing

Summary

AN INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE is ideal for use at all levels and in many different areas of instruction including education, languages, psychology, anthropology, teaching English as a Second Language (TESL), and linguistics. All chapters in this best-seller have been substantially revised to reflect recent discoveries and new understanding of linguistics and languages.

Table of Contents

Part 1 The Nature of Human Language
What is Language	3	(30)
Linguistic Knowledge	4	(8)
Knowledge of the Sound System	4	(1)
Knowledge of Words	5	(1)
Arbitrary Relation of form and Meaning	5	(3)
The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge	8	(3)
Knowledge of Sentences and Nonsentences	11	(1)
Linguistic Knowledge and Performance	12	(2)
What Is Grammar?	14	(4)
Descriptive Grammars	14	(1)
Prescriptive Grammars	15	(2)
Teaching Grammars	17	(1)
Language Universals	18	(5)
The Development of Grammar	19	(1)
Sign Languages: Evidence for Languages Universals	20	(1)
American Sign Language (ASL)	21	(2)
Animal ``languages''	23	(4)
``Talking'' Parrots	23	(1)
The Birds and the Bees	24	(3)
What We Know about Language	27	(1)
Summary	28	(1)
References for Further Reading	29	(1)
Exercises	30	(3)
Brain and language	33	(36)
The Human Brain	34	(14)
The Modularity of the Brain	34	(5)
Evidence from Childhood Brain Lesions	39	(1)
Split Brains	40	(1)
Further Experiments	41	(2)
More Evidence for Modularity	43	(1)
Aphasia	43	(5)
Distinct Categories of Conceptual Knowledge	48	(1)
The Autonomy of Language	48	(3)
Asymmetry of Abilities	49	(1)
Laura	49	(1)
Christopher	50	(1)
Genetic Evidence for Language Autonomy	50	(1)
Language and Brain Development	51	(5)
The Critical Period	51	(3)
A Critical Period for Bird Songs	54	(2)
The Evolution of Language	56	(5)
In the Beginning: The Origin of Language	56	(1)
God's Gift to Mankind?	57	(1)
The First Language	58	(1)
Human Invention or the Cries of Nature?	59	(1)
The development of Language in the spices	59	(2)
Summary	61	(1)
References for Further Reading	62	(1)
Exercises	63	(6)
Part 2 Grammatical Aspects of Language
Morophology: The Word of Language	69	(48)
Dictionaries	72	(1)
Content Words and Function Words	73	(2)
Morphemes: The Minimal Units of Meaning	75	(7)
Bound and Free Morphemes	77	(1)
Prefixes and Suffixes	77	(2)
Infixes	79	(1)
Circumfixes	80	(1)
Roots and Stems	80	(1)
Huckles and Ceives	81	(1)
Rules of Word Formation	82	(9)
Derivational Morphology	83	(1)
The Hierarchical Structure of Words	84	(2)
More about Derivational Morphemes	86	(1)
Lexical Gaps	87	(1)
Rule Productivity	88	(2)
``Pullet Surprises''	90	(1)
Sign Language Morphology	91	(1)
Word Coinage	92	(7)
Compounds	93	(1)
Meaning of Compounds	94	(1)
Universality of Compounding	95	(1)
Acronyms	95	(2)
Back-Formations	97	(1)
Abbreviations	97	(1)
Words from Names	98	(1)
Blends	98	(1)
Grammatical Morphemes	99	(6)
Inflectional Morphemes	100	(2)
Exceptions and Suppletions	102	(1)
Morphology and Syntax	103	(2)
Morphological Analysis: Identifying Morphemes	105	(1)
Summary	106	(2)
References for Further Reading	108	(1)
Exercises	108	(9)
The Sentence Patterns of Language	117	(56)
Grammatical or Ungrammatical?	118	(3)
What Grammaticality Is Based On	119	(1)
What Grammaticality Is Not Based On	120	(1)
What Else Do You Know about Syntax?	121	(2)
Sentence Structure	123	(14)
Syntactic Categories	125	(3)
Phrase Structure Trees	128	(2)
Heads and Complements	130	(1)
Selection	131	(2)
What Heads the Sentence?	133	(2)
The Infinity of Language	135	(2)
Phrase Structure Rules	137	(15)
Growing Trees: The Relationship between Phrase Structure Rules and Phrase Structure Trees	140	(3)
Structural Ambiguities	143	(1)
Trees That Won't Grow	144	(2)
More Phrase Structure Rules	146	(6)
Sentence Relatedness	152	(12)
Transformational Rules	153	(1)
Structure Dependent Rules	154	(2)
Syntactic Dependencies	156	(1)
Wh Questions	157	(2)
UG Principles and Parameters	159	(3)
Sign Language Syntax	162	(2)
Summary	164	(1)
References for Further Reading	165	(1)
Exercises	165	(8)
The Meanings of language	173	(58)
Lexical Semantic (Word Meanings)	173	(14)
Semantic Properties	174	(2)
Evidence for Semantic Properties	176	(1)
Semantic Properties and the Lexicon	176	(1)
More Semantic Relationships	177	(1)
-nyms	178	(1)
Homonyms and Polysemy	179	(2)
Synonyms	181	(1)
Antonyms	182	(1)
Formation of Antonyms	183	(1)
Hyponyms	184	(1)
Metonyms	184	(1)
Retronyms	185	(1)
Proper Names	185	(2)
Phrase and Sentence Meaning	187	(14)
Phrasal Meaning	188	(1)
Noun-Centered Meaning	189	(1)
Sense and Reference	190	(1)
Verb-Centered Meaning	191	(1)
Thematic Roles	192	(2)
Thematic Roles in Other Languages	194	(1)
The Theta-Criterion	195	(1)
Sentential Meaning	195	(1)
The ``Truth'' of Sentences	196	(1)
Paraphrase	197	(1)
Entailment	198	(1)
Contradiction	198	(1)
Events versus States	199	(1)
Pronouns and Coreferentiality	199	(2)
To Mean or Not to Mean	201	(6)
Anomaly: No Sense and Nonsense	201	(3)
Metaphor	204	(1)
Idioms	205	(2)
Pragmatics	207	(12)
Linguistic Context: Discourse	208	(1)
Pronouns	209	(2)
The Articles The and A	211	(1)
Situational Context	212	(1)
Maxims of Conversation	213	(1)
Speech Acts	114	(102)
Presuppositions	216	(1)
Deixis	217	(2)
Summary	219	(2)
References for Further Reading	221	(1)
Exercises	222	(9)
Phonetics: The Sounds of Language	231	(42)
Sound Segments	232	(3)
Identity of Speech Sounds	233	(2)
Spelling and Speech	235	(5)
The Phonetic Alphabet	236	(4)
Articulatory Phonetics	240	(22)
Airstream Mechanisms	240	(2)
Consonants	242	(1)
Places of Articulation	242	(1)
Bilabials [p] [b] [m]	242	(1)
Labiodentals [f] [v]	242	(1)
Interdentals (θ] [d]	242	(1)
Alveolars [t) (d) (n] [s] (z] (1] [r]	242	(1)
Palatals [f]/[S] [3]/[Z] [C] [J]	243	(1)
Velars [k] [g] (g]	243	(1)
Uvulars [R] [q) [G]	243	(1)
Glottal [?] [h]	243	(1)
Manners of Articulation	244	(1)
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds	244	(2)
Nasal and Oral Sounds	246	(1)
Stops [p] [b] [m] [t] [d] [n] [k] [g] [n] [c] [j][?]	247	(1)
Fricatives (f] [v] [θ] [d] [s] [z] [s] [z]	248	(1)
Affricates [c] [j]	248	(1)
Liquids [1] [r]	249	(1)
Glides (j] [w]	250	(1)
Phonetic Symbols for American English Consonants	250	(2)
Vowels	252	(1)
Tongue Position	252	(2)
Lip Rounding	254	(1)
Diphthongs	255	(1)
Nasalization of Vowels	255	(1)
Tense and Lax Vowels	255	(1)
Dialed Differences	256	(1)
Major Classes	257	(1)
Noncontinuants and Continuants	257	(1)
Obstruents and Sonorants	257	(1)
Consonants and Vowels	257	(1)
Labials [p] [b] [m] [f] [v]	258	(1)
Coronals [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [s] [z] [c] [J] [1]	258	(1)
Anterior [p] [b] [m] [f] [v] [θ] [d] [t] [d] [n] [s] [z]	258	(1)
Sibilants [s] [z] [s] [z] [c] [j]	258	(1)
Syllabic Sounds	258	(1)
Prosodic Suprasegmental Features	258	(1)
Tone and Intonation	259	(3)
Diacritics	262	(1)
Phonetic Symbols and Spelling Correspondences	262	(3)
Sign-Language Primes	265	(2)
Summary	267	(1)
References for Further Reading	268	(1)
Exercises	268	(5)
Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language	273	(68)
The Pronunciation of Morphemes	275	(8)
The Pronunciation of Plurals	275	(4)
Exceptions to the Plural Rule	279	(1)
Allomorphy in English: Further Examples	280	(1)
Allomorphy in Other languages	281	(2)
Phonemes: The Phonological Units of Language	283	(8)
Vowel Nasalization in English	283	(4)
Minimal Pairs in ASL	287	(1)
Complementary Distribution	287	(4)
Distinctive Features	291	(6)
Feature Values	291	(1)
Predictability of Redundant (Nondistinctive) Features	292	(2)
More on Redundancies	294	(1)
Unpredictability of Phonemic Features	295	(2)
Natural Classes	297	(4)
Feature Specifications for American English Consonants and Vowels	299	(2)
The Rules of Phonology	301	(16)
Assimilation Rules	301	(4)
Feature Changing Rules	305	(1)
Dissimilation Rules	306	(1)
Feature Addition Rules	307	(1)
Segment Deletion and Addition Rules	307	(4)
Movement (Metathesis) Rules	311	(1)
From One to Many and from Many to One	312	(3)
The Function of Phonological Rules	315	(1)
Slips of the Tongue: Evidence for Phonological Rules	316	(1)
Prosodic Phonology	317	(5)
Syllable Structure	317	(1)
Word Stress	318	(2)
Sentence and Phrase Stress	320	(1)
Intonation	321	(1)
Sequential Constraints	322	(2)
Lexical Gaps	324	(1)
Phonological Analysis: Discovering Phonemes	324	(3)
Summary	327	(2)
References for Further Reading	329	(1)
Exercises	329	(12)
Part 3 The Psychology of Language
Language Acquisition	341	(56)
Mechanisms of Language Acquisition	342	(5)
Do Children Learn through Imitation?	343	(1)
Do Children learn through Reinforcement?	344	(1)
Do Children Learn Language through Analogy?	345	(1)
Do Children Learn through Structured Input?	346	(1)
Children Construct Grammars	347	(27)
The Innateness Hypothesis	348	(3)
Stages in Language Acquisition	351	(1)
The Perception and Production of Speech Sounds	352	(2)
First Words	354	(2)
The Development of Grammar	356	(1)
The Acquisition of Phonology	356	(2)
The Acquisition of Word Meaning	358	(2)
The Acquisition of Morphology	360	(3)
The Acquisition of Syntax	363	(4)
The Acquisition of Pragmatics	367	(1)
The Development of Auxiliaries: A Case Study	368	(3)
Setting Parameters	371	(1)
The Acquisition of Signed Languages	372	(2)
Knowing More Than One language	374	(10)
Childhood Bilingualism	374	(2)
Theories of Bilingual Development	376	(1)
Two Monolinguals in One Head	377	(1)
The Role of Input	377	(1)
Cognitive Effects of Bilingualism	378	(1)
Second Language Acquisition	379	(1)
Is L2 Acquisition the Same as L1 acquisition?	379	(2)
Native Language Influence in L1 Acquisition	381	(1)
The Creative Component of L2 Acquisition	382	(1)
A Critical Period for L1 Acquisition?	383	(1)
Second-Language Teaching Methods	384	(1)
Can Chimps learn Human Language?	384	(6)
Gua	385	(1)
Viki	385	(1)
Washoe	385	(1)
Sarah	386	(1)
Learning Yerkish	386	(1)
Koko	386	(1)
Nim Chimpsky	386	(2)
Clever Hans	388	(1)
Kanzi	389	(1)
Summary	390	(2)
References for Further Reading	392	(1)
Exercises	393	(4)
Language Processing: Human and Computer	397	(48)
The Human Mind at Work: Human Language Processing	397	(15)
Comprehension	399	(1)
The Speech Signal	399	(2)
Speech Perception and Comprehension	401	(2)
Comprehension Models and Experimental Studies	403	(1)
Lexical Access and Word Recognition	404	(2)
Syntactic Processing	406	(2)
Speech Production	408	(1)
Planning Units	408	(2)
Lexical Selection	410	(1)
Application and Misapplication of Rules	410	(1)
Nonlinguistic Influences	411	(1)
Computer Processing of Human Language	412	(21)
Text and Speech Analysis	412	(1)
Frequency Analysis, Concordances, and Collocations	413	(1)
Information Retrieval and Summarization	414	(1)
Spell Checkers	415	(1)
Machine Translation	416	(2)
Computers That Talk and Listen	418	(1)
Computational Phonetics and Phonology	418	(1)
Speech Recognition	418	(2)
Speech Synthesis	420	(3)
Computational Morphology	423	(1)
Computational Syntax	424	(5)
Computational Semantics	429	(1)
Computational Pragmatics	430	(2)
Computer Models of Grammar	432	(1)
Summary	433	(3)
Reference for Further Reading	436	(1)
Exercises	437	(8)
Part 4 Language and Society
Language in Society	445	(54)
Dialects	445	(3)
Regional Dialects	446	(1)
Accents	447	(1)
Dialects of English	448	(6)
Phonological Differences	449	(1)
Lexical Differences	450	(1)
Dialed Atlases	451	(2)
Syntactic Differences	453	(1)
The ``Standard''	454	(5)
Language Purists	455	(2)
Banned Languages	457	(2)
The Revival of Languages	459	(1)
African American English	459	(6)
Phonology of African American English	460	(1)
R-Deletion	460	(1)
L-Deletion	460	(1)
Consonant Cluster Simplification	460	(1)
Neutralization of [I] and [ε] before Nasals	461	(1)
Diphthong Reduction	461	(1)
Loss of Interdental fricatives	461	(1)
Syntactic Differences between AAE and SAE	461	(1)
Double Negatives	462	(1)
Deletion of the Verb ``Be''	462	(1)
Habitual ``Be''	462	(2)
History of African American English	463	(2)
Latino (Hispanic) English	465	(3)
Chicano English (ChE)	466	(1)
Phonological Variables of ChE	466	(1)
Syntactic Variables in ChE	467	(1)
Lingua Francas	468	(1)
Pidgins and Creoles	469	(3)
Pidgins	469	(3)
Creoles	472	(1)
Styles, Slang, and Jargon	472	(4)
Styles	472	(1)
Slang	473	(2)
Jargon and Argot	475	(1)
Taboo or Not Taboo?	476	(6)
Euphemisms	479	(2)
Racial and National Epithets	481	(1)
Language, Sex, and Gender	482	(5)
Marked and Unmarked Forms	483	(2)
The Generic ``He''	485	(1)
Language and Gender	486	(1)
Secret languages and Language Games	487	(1)
Summary	488	(2)
References for Further Reading	490	(1)
Exercises	491	(8)
Language Change: The Syllables of Time	499	(46)
The Regularity of Sound Change	501	(2)
Sound Correspondences	501	(1)
Ancestral Protolanguages	502	(1)
Phonological Change	503	(3)
Phonological Rules	503	(1)
The Great Vowel Shift	504	(2)
Morphological Change	506	(2)
Syntactic Change	508	(2)
Lexical Change	510	(6)
Addition of New Words	511	(1)
Borrowings or Loan Words	512	(1)
History through Loan Words	512	(2)
Loss of Words	514	(1)
Semantic Change	515	(1)
Broadening	515	(1)
Narrowing	516	(1)
Meaning Shifts	516	(1)
Reconstructing ``Dead'' Languages	516	(8)
The Nineteenth-Century Comparativists	517	(1)
Cognates	518	(2)
Comparative Reconstruction	520	(2)
Historical Evidence	522	(2)
Extinct and Endangered Languages	524	(2)
The Genetic Classification of languages	526	(5)
Languages of the World	528	(3)
Types of Languages	531	(3)
Why Do languages Change?	534	(2)
Summary	536	(1)
References for Further Reading	537	(1)
Exercises	538	(7)
Writing: The ABCs of Language	545	(28)
The History of Writing	546	(6)
Pictograms and Ideograms	547	(1)
Cuneiform Writing	548	(2)
The Rebus Principle	550	(1)
From Hieroglyphs to the Alphabet	551	(1)
Modern Writing Systems	552	(7)
Word Writing	553	(1)
Syllabic Writing	554	(2)
Consonantal Alphabet Writing	556	(1)
Alphabetic Writing	556	(3)
Reading, Writing, and Speech	559	(8)
Reading	561	(1)
Spelling	562	(4)
Spelling Pronunciations	566	(1)
Summary	567	(1)
References for Further Reading	567	(1)
Exercises	568	(5)
Glossary	573	(26)
Index	599