Methods in Ecosystem Science

by Sala, Osvaldo E.; Jackson, Robert B.; Mooney, Harold A.; Howarth, Robert W.; Odum, E. P.

• ISBN13: 9780387987439
• ISBN10: 0387987436
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2000-09-01
• Publisher: Springer Nature

Summary

Ecology at the ecosystem level has both necessitated and benefited from new methods and technologies as well as those adapted from other disciplines. With the ascendancy of ecosystem science and management, the need has arisen for a comprehensive treatment of techniques used in this rapidly-growing field. Methods in Ecosystem Scienceanswers that need by synthesizing the advantages, disadvantages and tradeoffs associated with the most commonly used techniques in both aquatic and terrestrial research. The book is divided into sections addressing carbon and energy dynamics, nutrient and water dynamics, manipulative ecosystem experiements and tools to synthesize our understanding of ecosystems. Detailed information about various methods will help researchers choose the most appropriate methods for their particular studies. Prominent scientists discuss how tools from a variety of disciplines can be used in ecosystem science at different scales.

Table of Contents

Foreword	v
Acknowledgments	vii
Contributors	xix
Introduction. Methods in Ecosystem Science: Progress, Tradeoffs, and Limitations	1	(2)
Osvaldo E. Sala
Robert B. Jackson
Harold A. Mooney
Robert W. Howarth
References	3	(2)
Part 1. Carbon and Energy Dynamics	5	(154)
Stand Structure in Terrestrial Ecosystems	7	(24)
Frank W. Davis
Dar Roberts
Introduction	7	(1)
Methodological Approaches	7	(1)
Models of Canopy Architecture	8	(3)
Remote Sensing Instrumentation for Indirect Methods	11	(7)
Portable Ground Instruments	11	(1)
Aerial Remote Sensing	12	(6)
Approaches for Estimating Stand Structure	18	(7)
Canopy Height	19	(1)
Vertical Foliar Distribution	19	(2)
Stand Density	21	(1)
Cover and Leaf Area	22	(1)
Biomass	23	(1)
Three-Dimensional Structure	24	(1)
References	25	(6)
Methods of Estimating Aboveground Net Primary Productivity	31	(13)
Osvaldo E. Sala
Amy T. Austin
Introduction	31	(2)
Methods to Estimate ANPP in Fast Turnover Ecosystems	33	(3)
Estimates of Aboveground Biomass	35	(1)
Methods to Estimate ANPP in Slow Turnover Ecosystems	36	(1)
Errors Associated with Estimates of ANPP	37	(4)
Optimal Methodology to Estimate ANPP	41	(1)
Summary	41	(1)
References	42	(2)
Global Terrestrial Gross and Net Primary Productivity from the Earth Observing System	44	(14)
Steven W. Running
Peter E. Thornton
Ramakrishna Nemani
Joseph M. Glassy
Introduction	44	(1)
Theoretical Basis for the Algorithm for Global NPP	44	(6)
Relating NPP and APAR	45	(1)
Relating APAR and NDVI	45	(1)
Biophysical Variability of ε	45	(1)
Parameterization of ε with Global BIOME-BGC Simulations	46	(4)
Algorithm Implementation Logic in EOS	50	(3)
Satellite-Derived Input Variables	50	(1)
Final NPP Algorithm	51	(2)
Validation of Global NPP	53	(2)
Summary	55	(1)
References	55	(3)
Methods of Estimating Belowground Net Primary Production	58	(14)
William K. Lauenroth
Introduction	58	(1)
Concepts	58	(1)
Methods	59	(6)
Biomass	59	(1)
Ingrowth Cores	60	(1)
Isotopes	61	(1)
Carbon Balance	62	(1)
Nitrogen Balance	63	(1)
Minirhizotrons	63	(2)
Uncertainty in Estimates of BNPP	65	(4)
Summary	69	(1)
References	69	(3)
The Measurement of Primary Production in Aquatic Ecosystems	72	(14)
Robert W. Howarth
Anthony F. Michaels
Introduction	72	(2)
Light and Dark Bottle Oxygen Technique	74	(1)
Carbon-14 Technique	75	(2)
Problems and Challenges with Light and Dark Bottle and Carbon-14 Techniques	77	(2)
In Situ Diel Approaches	79	(3)
Remote Sensing Techniques	82	(1)
References	82	(4)
Benthic Respiration in Aquatic Sediments	86	(18)
Bo Thamdrup
Donald E. Canfield
Introduction	86	(2)
Total Benthic Mineralization, Flux Measurements	88	(1)
Other Total Mineralization Assays	89	(1)
Respiratory Pathways, Oxygen Respiration	90	(1)
Nitrate Reduction	91	(1)
Manganese and Iron Reduction	92	(3)
Sulfate Reduction	95	(1)
Methanogenesis	96	(1)
Conclusions	97	(1)
References	97	(7)
Decomposition and Soil Organic Matter Dynamics	104	(13)
G. Philip Robertson
Eldor A. Paul
Introduction	104	(2)
Plant Litter Decomposition	106	(4)
Fine Litter Decomposition Rates	106	(3)
Woody Detritus	109	(1)
Reciprocal Transplants and Standard Substrates	109	(1)
Soil Organic Matter Dynamics	110	(3)
Soil Organic Matter Stores	110	(1)
Physical Fractionation of Soil Organic Matter	110	(1)
Biological Soil Organic Matter Fractions	111	(2)
Use of Tracers	113	(1)
References	113	(4)
Stable Isotope Tracers and Mathematical Models in Soil Organic Matter Studies	117	(21)
Ronald Amundson
W. Troy Baisden
Introduction	117	(1)
Soil Organic Matter Pools and Dynamics	117	(2)
SOM Pools	117	(1)
SOM Additions	118	(1)
SOM Losses	118	(1)
Internal SOM Transfers	119	(1)
SOM Transformations	119	(1)
Stable Carbon Isotopes in Organic Matter	119	(9)
Well-Mixed One Box Model of C Isotopes in SOM	119	(3)
Uses of Well-Mixed Box Models in SOM C Studies	122	(1)
Models for Vertical Variations in the δ13C Value of SOM	123	(5)
Stable Nitrogen Isotopes in Organic Matter	128	(6)
Well-Mixed One Box Soil Ecosystem Model of N Isotopes	129	(3)
Use of N Isotopes in SOM as a Tracer	132	(1)
Model of Vertical Variations in δ15N Value of SOM	132	(2)
Conclusions	134	(1)
References	134	(4)
Microbial Carbon Cycling in Pelagic Ecosystems: Microbial Methods for Ecosystem Scientists	138	(13)
Jonathan J. Cole
Introduction	138	(1)
Abundance and Biomass	139	(4)
Epifluorescent Direct Count	140	(1)
Sample Preservation	141	(1)
Count by Flow Cytometry	141	(1)
Active and Inactive Cells	141	(1)
Cell Size and Biomass	142	(1)
Growth and Respiration of Planktonic Bacteria	143	(3)
Bacterial Secondary Production	143	(1)
Bacterial Respiration	144	(1)
Uptake and Turnover of Specific Substrates	144	(1)
Substrates Supporting Bacterial Growth	144	(2)
Conclusions	146	(1)
References	147	(4)
Herbivory in Terrestrial Ecosystems	151	(8)
Martin Oesterheld
Samuel J. McNaughton
Introduction	151	(1)
Consumption	151	(3)
Animal-Based Methods	151	(1)
Plant-Based Methods	152	(2)
Differential Use of the Two Approaches	154	(1)
Effect of Herbivores on Primary Production	154	(2)
Compensatory Growth	154	(1)
Approaches	155	(1)
References	156	(3)
Part 2. Nutrient and Water Dynamics	159	(130)
Canopy Fluxes	161	(20)
John B. Moncrieff
Paul G. Jarvis
Ricardo Valentini
Introduction	161	(1)
The Canopy Scale	161	(5)
The Surface Boundary Layer	161	(2)
Net Ecosystem Exchange	163	(1)
Flux Footprint	164	(2)
Methodologies	166	(8)
Aerodynamic Method	167	(1)
Energy Balance/Bowen Ratio	167	(1)
Eddy Covariance	168	(6)
Conditional Sampling	174	(1)
Errors in Long-Term Measurements of Fluxes of Carbon and Water	174	(1)
Related Techniques	175	(2)
Conclusions	177	(1)
References	177	(4)
Assessing Ecosystem-Level Water Relations Through Stable Isotope Ratio Analyses	181	(18)
James R. Ehleringer
John Roden
Todd E. Dawson
Introduction	181	(1)
Stable Isotopes: Natural Abundances and δ Notation	181	(1)
Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry	181	(2)
Meteoric Water Line	183	(1)
Evaporative Enrichment	183	(1)
Methods for Water Sampling, Extraction, and Analysis	184	(2)
Water Sample Collection and Storage	184	(1)
Soil, Leaf, and Stem Water Extraction	185	(1)
δD Analysis of Water	185	(1)
δ18O Analysis of Water	186	(1)
Methods for Leaf and Stem Organic Matter Sampling, Extraction, and Analysis	186	(3)
Total Tissue Versus Cellulose Analysis	186	(1)
Leaf Sampling Considerations	187	(1)
Tree Ring Separation and Cellulose Purification	187	(1)
δ13C Analysis of Organic Matter	188	(1)
δD Analysis of Organic Matter	189	(1)
δ18O Analysis of Organic Matter	189	(1)
Short-Term, Ecosystem Process-Level Applications	189	(4)
Partitioning of Water Resources Among Plants Within Ecosystems	189	(2)
Using δD and δ18O Water Pulses and Interpretation of Mixing Models	191	(1)
Water-Use Efficiency	192	(1)
Short-Term, Regional Process-Level Applications Across Ecosystems	193	(1)
Recycling of Water Among and Between Ecosystems	193	(1)
δ18O of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide	193	(1)
Long-Term, Temporal Scaling of Ecosystem Processes	193	(1)
Decadal-to-Century: Tree Rings	193	(1)
Millennial: Caliche	194	(1)
Animals	194	(1)
Short-Term Indicators of Water Source	194	(1)
Long-Term Indicators of Water Source	194	(1)
References	195	(4)
Measuring Water Availability and Uptake in Ecosystem Studies	199	(16)
Robert B. Jackson
Laurel J. Anderson
William T. Pockman
Introduction	199	(1)
Theory and Currencies for Measuring Water in the Environment	199	(2)
Methods for Estimating Plant and Soil Moisture	201	(6)
Gravimetric Measurements of θm and θv	201	(1)
Techniques for Direct Measurement of ψ	202	(2)
Time Domain Reflectometry	204	(2)
Remotely Sensed Data Using Microwave Radiometers	206	(1)
Estimating the Vegetative Component of Ecosystem Water Fluxes	207	(3)
Sap Flow Measurements	208	(1)
Whole Root/Shoot Hydraulic Conductance	209	(1)
Summary	210	(1)
References	211	(4)
Nutrient Transformations	215	(20)
John M. Stark
Introduction	215	(2)
Non-Isotope Methods	217	(6)
Net Rate Measurements with Inhibitors	217	(4)
Rate Measurements Obtained from Nutrient Budgets	221	(1)
Net Rate Measurements with ``Super Sinks''	221	(1)
Rate Measurements Using Substrate Analogs	222	(1)
Isotope Methods	223	(8)
Tracer Measurements	223	(1)
Isotope Dilution Measurements	224	(5)
Estimation of Rates by Modeling Methods	229	(1)
Natural Abundance Isotope Methods	230	(1)
Application of Methods to Other Nutrient Transformations	231	(1)
References	231	(4)
Biogenic Trace Gas Exchanges	235	(14)
Pamela Matson
Allen Goldstein
Approaches for Estimation of Fluxes	235	(7)
Enclosure Methods	236	(6)
Micrometeorological Approaches	242	(1)
Analytical Methods for Trace Gases	242	(2)
Multiple Approaches for Understanding and Estimating Fluxes	244	(1)
References	244	(5)
Ecosystem Nutrient Balance and Dynamics	249	(16)
Kate Lajtha
Introduction	249	(1)
Input--Output Ecosystem Budgets at the Watershed Scale	250	(3)
Atmospheric Inputs	251	(1)
Stream Outputs	252	(1)
Other Budget Approaches	253	(5)
Stand-Level Budgets Using Lysimetry	253	(3)
Monolith Lysimetry and Sandbox Experiments	256	(2)
Nitrogen-15 Studies at the Ecosystem Scale	258	(1)
References	259	(6)
Deposition of Nutrients and Pollutants to Ecosystems	265	(12)
Lars O. Hedin
Role of Atmospheric Deposition	265	(1)
Vectors of Delivery	266	(1)
Scales of Inquiry	266	(1)
Wet Deposition	267	(1)
Dry Deposition	268	(2)
Cloud Deposition	270	(1)
Mass-Balance Techniques	271	(1)
Stable Isotope and Other Tracer Techniques	272	(1)
Summary and Prospects	273	(1)
References	274	(3)
Landscape and Regional Biogeochemistry: Approaches	277	(12)
Ingrid C. Burke
Introduction	277	(1)
Pattern Analysis: Design for Field Studies	278	(2)
Stratified Sampling and Discrete Units	278	(1)
Sampling Continuous Variation	279	(1)
Spatially Explicit Analyses	280	(2)
Field Analyses	280	(1)
Modeling Movement	281	(1)
Extrapolating to the Regional or Landscape Scale	282	(1)
Field Analysis	282	(1)
Modeling	283	(1)
Summary	283	(1)
References	284	(5)
Part 3. Manipulative Ecosystem Experiments	289	(82)
Nutrient Manipulations in Terrestrial Ecosystems	291	(17)
Valerie T. Eviner
F. Stuart Chapin III
Charles E. Vaughn
Introduction	291	(1)
Ecological Questions Addressed by Nutrient Addition	291	(1)
Nature of Nutrient Limitation	292	(1)
Commonly Limiting Nutrients	293	(1)
Single Versus Multiple Nutrient Limitation	293	(1)
Experimental Design	293	(7)
General Approach	293	(1)
Experimental Setup	294	(1)
Experimental Design	294	(1)
Time Scale of Response	295	(1)
Addition Rates	295	(1)
How to Add?	295	(1)
Form of Nutrients Added	296	(1)
Nitrogen	296	(2)
Phosphorus	298	(1)
Potassium	299	(1)
Sulfur	299	(1)
Isotopes	300	(2)
Alternatives to Nutrient Addition Experiments	302	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	303	(1)
References	303	(5)
Biotic Manipulation of Aquatic Ecosystems	308	(10)
Daniel E. Schindler
Brian R. Herwig
Stephen R. Carpenter
Introduction	308	(1)
Manipulation of Species	308	(2)
Species Removals	308	(1)
Species Introductions	309	(1)
Habitat Manipulations	310	(1)
Macrophyte Restoration and Removal in Lakes	310	(1)
Restoration of Other Structural Features	311	(1)
Wetland Restoration	311	(1)
Simulation Modeling, Manipulation Strength, and Statistical Power	311	(2)
Future Prospects	313	(2)
Field Guide to Keystones	313	(1)
Humans and Ecosystems	313	(1)
Adaptive Management	314	(1)
References	315	(3)
Biotic Manipulations Involving Belowground Animals	318	(12)
Diana H. Wall
O. James Reichman
Introduction	318	(1)
Soil Biota	318	(2)
Exclusions as Biotic Manipulations	320	(2)
Physical Exclusion Methods	320	(1)
Chemical Exclusions	321	(1)
Natural Gradients as Treatments	322	(1)
Habitat Manipulations	323	(1)
Physical Alteration	323	(1)
Introductions and Transplants	323	(1)
Resource Manipulations	324	(1)
Laboratory Studies	324	(1)
Summary	325	(1)
References	325	(5)
Assessing the Effects of Acidification on Aquatic Ecosystems: Insights from Lake Experiments	330	(11)
Thomas M. Frost
Janet M. Fischer
Introduction	330	(1)
The Chemistry of Acidification	331	(1)
What Controls the Anthropogenic Acidification of Aquatic Ecosystems?	331	(1)
Ecological Consequences of Acidification	332	(1)
Smaller-Scale Experiments to Evaluate the Effects of Acidification	332	(2)
Large-Scale Experiments to Evaluate the Effects of Acidification	334	(4)
References	338	(3)
Large-Scale Water Manipulations	341	(12)
Paul J. Hanson
Introduction	341	(1)
Active Versus Passive Manipulations	342	(1)
Artificial Rainfall	343	(1)
Throughfall Interception	344	(1)
Verification of Water Treatments	345	(3)
Measurement Approaches	345	(1)
Dealing with Spatial Variation	346	(2)
Collection of Adequate Weather Data	348	(1)
Confounding Issues	348	(1)
Plot Size and Edge Effects	348	(1)
Statistical Replication	349	(1)
Conclusions	349	(1)
References	350	(3)
Ecosystem Climate Manipulations	353	(18)
Karin P. Shen
John Harte
Introduction	353	(1)
Global Climate Change and Ecosystems	353	(2)
Methods of Ecosystem Climate Manipulation	355	(9)
Laboratory Methods: Growth Chambers	355	(1)
Field Manipulations: General Considerations	356	(1)
Field Manipulations: Warming Experiments	357	(5)
Field Methods: Other Climate Variables	362	(1)
Field Methods: Enhancing UV-B Radiation	363	(1)
General Recommendations	364	(1)
References	365	(6)
Part 4. Synthesis and Conclusions	371	(36)
Ecosystem Modeling	373	(16)
Herman H. Shugart
Introduction	373	(1)
Lexical Phase	373	(1)
Parsing Phase	374	(1)
Modeling Phase	375	(6)
A Simple Population Model	376	(1)
Compartment Models and Material Flow	376	(2)
Formulation of Compartment Models for Ecosystem Studies	378	(3)
Analysis Phase	381	(2)
Model Validation	381	(1)
Sensitivity Analysis	381	(2)
Stability Analysis	383	(1)
Future Directions: Multiple Commodity Models and Individual-Based Models	383	(3)
Multiple Commodity Models	383	(2)
Individual-Based Models	385	(1)
Conclusions	386	(1)
References	386	(3)
Stoichiometric Analysis of Pelagic Ecosystems: The Biogeochemistry of Planktonic Food Webs	389	(18)
James J. Elser
Introduction	389	(1)
Biogeochemical Structure of Planktonic Food Webs	390	(7)
Dynamics Under Stoichiometric Constraints: The Andersen Model	397	(3)
What About the Microbes?	400	(1)
Methodological Issues	401	(1)
Applications	402	(1)
Implications	403	(1)
References	404	(3)
Index	407