National Security Law

by Moore, John Norton; Turner, Robert F.

• ISBN13: 9781594600234
• ISBN10: 1594600236
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-01-01
• Publisher: Carolina Academic Press

Summary

The academic field of national security law began more than three decades ago at the University of Virginia School of Law when Professor John Norton Moore recognized a need to prepare law students to deal with legal problems involving the national security of the United States and began offering a course entitled "law and national security." In 1981, the editors co-founded the Center for National Security Law (CNSL) at Virginia, and in 1990 the first edition of this landmark text was published. Since then, CNSL has run more than a dozen summer National Security Law Institutes to help prepare professors and government practitioners to teach or work in this growing new field, and courses dealing with national security law are being taught at most American law schools.This remarkable new edition includes contributions by more than two dozen scholars and practitioners from the United States and abroad, including a judge on the International Court of Justice, a former Director of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, the senior national security lawyer at the FBI, a former Legal Adviser to the National Security Council, and distinguished professors from major universities. In addition to updated revisions of more traditional topics like war powers, terrorism, intelligence, arms control, treaties, human rights, immigration, trade, environmental law, and freedom of expression, the new edition includes chapters on space law, homeland defense, information warfare, and a revolutionary new theoretical approach to the origins of war - making National Security Law the most comprehensive and up-to-date text in the field.

Table of Contents

Preface	xxxvii
Acknowledgments	xliii
Editors	li
Contributors	liii
Table of Cases	lix
Theoretical Approaches to National Security and World Order	3	(12)
Inis L. Claude
The Balance of Power Approach	3	(3)
The Collective Security Approach	6	(3)
The World Federalist Approach	9	(3)
The Functionalist Approach	12	(2)
Conclusions	14	(1)
Newer Theories in Understanding War: From the Democratic Peace to Incentive Theory	15	(14)
John Norton Moore
The Democratic Peace	15	(2)
More Pieces of the Puzzle	17	(3)
Democracy and Deterrence	20	(1)
Testing the Hypothesis	20	(1)
Building on Other Approaches	21	(2)
Toward Incentive Theory	23	(1)
Terrorism and the Events of September 11	24	(1)
Consequences for Foreign Policy	24	(3)
Questions for Discussion	27	(1)
Selected Bibliography	27	(2)
Development of the International Law of Conflict Management	29	(40)
John Norton Moore
Introduction	29	(5)
Questions for Discussion	32	(1)
Quincy Wright, A Study of War	32	(1)
Questions for Discussion	33	(1)
Historical Development	34	(33)
The ``Just War'' Period	34	(1)
Aristotle, The Politics	34	(3)
Cicero, De Officiis	37	(1)
Cicero, The Republic	37	(1)
Saint Thomas Aquinas, The Summa Theologica	37	(1)
David Little, The `Just War' Tradition	38	(3)
The Period of ``War as Fact''	41	(1)
Karl von Clausewitz, On War	41	(1)
Inis L. Claude, Swords into Plowshares: The Problems and Progress of International Organization	42	(4)
James Brown Scott, Introduction to Treaties for the Advancement of Peace Between the United States and Other Powers Negotiated by the Honorable William J. Bryan, Secretary of State of the United States	46	(2)
The League of Nations	48	(1)
Covenant of the League of Nations	48	(3)
The Kellogg-Briand Pact and the Late League Era	51	(1)
Treaty of Paris (Kellogg-Briand Pact)	51	(1)
Quincy Wright, The Meaning of the Pact of Paris	52	(2)
The Early Period of the United Nations Charter	54	(1)
The Charter Structure and the Permissibility of Recourse to Force	55	(1)
The Charter Period and the Law of War	56	(1)
The Charter Period and Norms Concerning Obligations to Terminate Hostilities	56	(1)
The Charter Structure and Institutions for Peaceful Settlement of Disputes	56	(1)
The Charter Period and Personal Responsibility for Violation of Major Conflict Management Norms (the Nuremberg Principles)	56	(1)
Formulation of Nurnberg Principles: Discussion in the International Law Commission	57	(2)
The Charter Structure and Arms Control and Disarmament	59	(1)
The Charter Era to 1990	60	(4)
The Contemporary Charter Era	64	(1)
Questions for Discussion	65	(2)
Selected Bibliography	67	(2)
The Use of Force in International Relations: Norms Concerning the Initiation of Coercion	69	(142)
John Norton Moore
Overview	69	(3)
The Basic Charter Framework	72	(40)
Unlawful Aggressive Use of Force and Lawful Defense: The Complementary Structure of Articles 2(4) and 51	72	(1)
Myres S. McDougal & Florentino P. Feliciano, Complementary Prescriptions on Permissible and Nonpermissible Coercion	73	(1)
Defining Unlawful Use of Force (the Definition of Aggression)	74	(1)
McDougal & Feliciano, The Debate about Definitions	74	(1)
``Definition of Aggression'' Resolution	75	(3)
Questions for Discussion	78	(1)
McDougal & Feliciano, Goal Clarification by Configurative Analysis: An Alternative Conception	79	(6)
Questions for Discussion	85	(1)
John Norton Moore, Toward an Applied Theory for the Regulation of Intervention	86	(3)
Questions for Discussion	89	(1)
Necessity and Proportionality	89	(1)
McDougal & Feliciano, Conditions and the Expectation of Necessity	89	(5)
The Use of Force Under Regional Arrangements	94	(1)
General and United Nations Charter Requirements	94	(1)
John Norton Moore, The Role of Regional Arrangements in the Maintenance of World Order	94	(14)
Letter from Davis R. Robinson, Legal Adviser, U.S. Department of State, to Professor Edward Gordon, Reiterating U.S. Legal Position Concerning Grenada (Feb. 10, 1984)	108	(2)
Use-of-Force Provisions of the OAS System	110	(1)
Question for Discussion	110	(1)
Problem	110	(2)
Continuing Problems	112	(29)
Minor Coercion and the Article 2(4) Threshold	112	(1)
Richard B. Lillich, Forcible Self-Help Under International Law	113	(4)
Questions for Discussion	117	(1)
De Facto Boundaries and Territorial Disputes	117	(1)
McDougal & Feliciano, The Characteristics of Participants	117	(1)
John Norton Moore, Reply on the Falklands War	118	(2)
Questions for Discussion	120	(1)
Civil Strife and the Norms of Intervention	120	(1)
John Norton Moore, Toward an Applied Theory for the Regulation of Intervention	121	(5)
Questions for Discussion	126	(1)
Protection of Nationals and Humanitarian Intervention	126	(1)
Richard B. Lillich, Forcible Self Help Under International Law	127	(3)
John Norton Moore, Law and the Grenada Mission	130	(1)
Ian Brownlie, Humanitarian Intervention	131	(1)
Richard B. Lillich, Humanitarian Intervention: A Reply to Ian Brownlie and a Plea for Constructive Alternatives	131	(2)
James P. Terry, Rethinking Humanitarian Intervention After Kosovo: Legal Reality and Political Pragmatism	133	(5)
Questions for Discussion	138	(1)
Claims to Anticipatory Defense	138	(1)
William V. O'Brien, Israel's Attack on Osirak	138	(1)
W. Thomas Mallison, The Disturbing Questions	139	(1)
Eugene V. Rostow, Law `Is Not A Suicide Pact'	139	(1)
Questions for Discussion	140	(1)
Illustrative Case Studies	141	(65)
The Indo-China Conflict: Problems in Mixed Civil-International Settings	141	(1)
John Norton Moore, International Law and the United States Role in Viet Nam: A Reply	141	(3)
Richard A. Falk, International Law and the United States Role in Viet Nam: A Response to Professor Moore	144	(1)
Questions for Discussion	145	(1)
The ``Six Day'' War: Problems in Anticipatory Defense	146	(1)
Amos Shapira, The Six-Day War and the Right of Self-Defence	146	(1)
M. Cherif Bassiouni, The ``Middle East'': The Misunderstood Conflict	147	(1)
Central America: Case Study in Covert Attack and Response	148	(1)
Christopher C. Joyner & Michael A. Grimaldi, The United States and Nicaragua: Reflections on the Lawfulness of Contemporary Intervention	148	(3)
John Norton Moore, The Secret War in Central America and the Future of World Order	151	(10)
Military and Paramilitary Activities (Nicaragua v. U.S., Judgment of the Court)	161	(1)
Military and Paramilitary Activities (Nicaragua v. U.S., Dissenting Opinion of Judge Schwebel)	162	(1)
Questions for Discussion	163	(1)
Note	164	(1)
Grenada: Problems in Regional Action	164	(1)
John Norton Moore, Grenada and the International Double Standard	164	(3)
Christopher C. Joyner, Reflections on the Lawfulness of Invasion	167	(1)
The Falklands War: Case Study in the ``De Facto'' Principle in Defining International Entities for Purposes of the Ban on the Aggressive Use of Force in International Relations and the Effect of Non-Compliance with Security Council Resolutions	168	(1)
The Cardenas-Moore Exchange	168	(1)
Alberto R. Coll, Philosophical and Legal Dimensions of the Use of Force in the Falklands War	169	(1)
The Gulf War: The Security Council Responds to Overt Invasion	170	(1)
John Norton Moore, Crisis in the Gulf: Enforcing the Rule of Law	170	(9)
Questions for Discussion	179	(1)
The Entebbe Raid: Defense Against Terrorism	179	(1)
Jeffrey A. Sheehan, The Entebbe Raid: The Principle of Self-Help in International Law as Justification for State Use of Armed Force	179	(2)
Memorandum by Monroe Leigh, Legal Adviser of the Department of State, to Henry A. Kissinger, Secretary of State	181	(1)
Questions for Discussion	182	(1)
Afghanistan and the War Against Terrorism: Defense Against Terrorism Continued	182	(1)
Letter dated 7 October 2001 from the Permanent Representative of the United States of America to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council	182	(1)
Jonathan I. Charney, Editorial Comments: The Use of Force Against Terrorism and International Law	183	(3)
Thomas M. Franck, Editorial Comments: Terrorism and the Right of Self-Defense	186	(4)
Sean D. Murphy, ed., Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law	190	(9)
Jost Delbruck, The Fight Against Global Terrorism: Self-Defense or Collective Security as International Police Action? Some Comments on the International Legal Implications of the `War Against Terrorism'	199	(1)
Questions for Discussion	200	(1)
The Iraq War: Actions in Response to Breach of Security Council Ceasefire Conditions	200	(1)
Security Council Resolution 678, 200 Security Council Resolution 687	201	(1)
Security Council Resolution 1441	201	(1)
U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell, Remarks to the United Nations Security Council	202	(3)
Marc Weller, The Legality of the Threat or Use of Force Against Iraq	205	(1)
Questions for Discussion	206	(1)
Selected Bibliography	206	(5)
Institutional Modes of Conflict Management	211	(110)
Rosalyn Higgins
Dan Sarooshi
Historical and Theoretical Overview	211	(2)
The United Nations System	213	(78)
Membership of the United Nations	213	(1)
The Security Council	214	(1)
Security Council Decision-Making	214	(2)
Questions for Discussion	216	(1)
Security Council Powers	216	(1)
Oscar Schachter, The Development of International Law through the Legal Opinions of the United Nations Secretariat	217	(1)
Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970)	218	(1)
Comments	218	(2)
Questions for Discussion	220	(1)
Security Council Enforcement Measures to Maintain or Restore Peace & Security	220	(1)
Article 39 of the Charter	220	(1)
Rosalyn Higgins, Problems and Process: International Law and How We Use It, 255, 257	220	(1)
Comments	221	(1)
Questions for Discussion	222	(1)
Article 40 of the Charter	222	(1)
Article 41 of the Charter: Economic Sanctions	223	(1)
Security Council Resolution 221	223	(1)
Security Council Resolution 232	224	(1)
Security Council Resolution 1373	225	(1)
Comments	226	(2)
U.N. Security Council Meeting 4128, April 17, 2000	228	(1)
Letter from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee Established Pursuant to Resolution 724 (1991) Concerning Yugoslavia Addressed to the President of the Security Council	229	(1)
Questions for Discussion	230	(1)
Article 42 of the Charter: Military Enforcement Action	230	(1)
The Original Charter Framework	231	(1)
Rosalyn Higgins, Problems and Process: International Law and How We Use It, 263--66	231	(1)
The Delegation By the Council of its Chapter VII Powers to UN Member States	232	(1)
Danesh Sarooshi, The United Nations and the Development of Collective Security, 13--15	232	(2)
Danesh Sarooshi, The United Nations and the Development of Collective Security, 153--58	234	(1)
Comments	235	(1)
Danesh Sarooshi, The United Nations and the Development of Collective Security, 174, 177--80, 182--83, 185--86	235	(3)
Rosalyn Higgins, Problems and Process: International Law and How We Use It, 259	238	(1)
Jules Lobel & Michael Ratner, Bypassing the Security Council: Ambiguous Authorizations to Use Force, Cease-Fires and the Iraqi Inspection Regime	239	(4)
Security Council Resolution 1441	243	(3)
Questions for Discussion	246	(1)
Comments	247	(1)
Danesh Sarooshi, The United Nations and the Development of Collective Security, 233--35, 237, 243--44	247	(2)
John Norton Moore, Toward a New Paradigm: Enhanced Effectiveness in United Nations Peacekeeping, Collective Security, and War Avoidance	249	(6)
Questions for Discussion	255	(1)
UN Transitional Administrations	255	(1)
Michael J. Matheson, United Nations Governance of Postconflict Societies	255	(4)
Ralph Wilde, From Danzig to East Timor and Beyond: The Role of International Territorial Administration	259	(3)
Questions for Discussion	262	(1)
The General Assembly	262	(1)
Comments	262	(1)
The ``Uniting For Peace'' Resolution	263	(1)
General Assembly Resolution 377, ``Uniting For Peace''	263	(1)
D.W. Bowett, United Nations Forces	264	(1)
Christine Gray, International Law and the Use of Force	265	(1)
Certain Expenses of the UN	265	(2)
Questions for Discussion	267	(1)
UN Peacekeeping	267	(1)
Constitutional Basis	268	(1)
Rosalyn Higgins, Problems and Process: International Law and How We Use It, 174--76	268	(1)
Rosalyn Higgins, 1 United Nations Peacekeeping 1946--1967	269	(1)
Rosalyn Higgins, Problems and Process: International Law and How We Use It, 264--65	270	(1)
D.W. Bowett, United Nations Forces	270	(1)
Comments	271	(2)
Questions for Discussion	273	(1)
The Secretary-General's Role in the Conduct of UN Peacekeeping Operations	273	(1)
Danesh Sarooshi, The Role of the UN Secretary-General in UN Peace-Keeping Operations	274	(2)
Questions for Discussion	276	(1)
Future Mandates and Reform of UN Peacekeeping Forces	276	(1)
Kofi Annan, Peace-Keeping in Situations of Civil War	276	(2)
Rosalyn Higgins, Peace and Security. Achievements and Failures	278	(3)
The Comprehensive Report on Lessons Learned from United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM)	281	(2)
Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations	283	(2)
Report of the Secretary-General on the Implementation of the Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations	285	(1)
Security Council Resolution 1318	286	(1)
Security Council Resolution 1353	287	(2)
Questions for Discussion	289	(1)
The UN Secretary-General	289	(1)
Rosalyn Higgins, Problems and Process: International Law and How We Use It, 170--72	290	(1)
Comments	290	(1)
Questions for Discussion	291	(1)
The Role of Regional Arrangements	291	(25)
The UN---Regional Arrangement Relationship	292	(1)
An Agenda for Peace, Preventative Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-Keeping	292	(1)
Supplement to an Agenda for Peace	293	(1)
Rosalyn Higgins, Peace and Security, Achievements and Failures	294	(2)
Danesh Sarooshi, The United Nations and the Development of Collective Security, 250--53	296	(1)
Questions for Discussion	297	(1)
The Organization of American States	297	(1)
Charter of the Organization of American States	297	(1)
John Norton Moore, The Inter-American System Snarls in Falklands War	298	(1)
African Regional Arrangements	299	(1)
The African Union	300	(1)
Christine Gray, International Law and the Use of Force	300	(1)
Renata Dwan, Armed Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution	300	(1)
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)	301	(1)
Christine Gray, Regional Arrangements and the United Nations Collective Security System	301	(2)
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)	303	(1)
The North Atlantic Treaty	303	(1)
Rosalyn Higgins, Peace and Security, Achievements and Failures	304	(1)
Ralph Zacklin, Beyond Kosovo: The United Nations and Humanitarian Intervention	305	(3)
Louis Henkin, Kosovo and the Law of ``Humanitarian Intervention''	308	(3)
Bruno Simma, NATO, the UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects	311	(2)
The Alliance's Strategic Concept	313	(1)
John Norton Moore, The Role of Regional Arrangements in the Maintenance of World Order	314	(2)
Questions for Discussion	316	(1)
Selected Bibliography	316	(5)
The Law of War and Neutrality	321	(52)
Howard S. Levie
Jack Grunawalt
Theoretical and Historical Overview	321	(9)
Goals	321	(1)
M.H. Keen, The Laws of War in the Late Middle Ages	322	(1)
The Prize Cases	322	(1)
Geoffrey Best, Humanity in Warfare	322	(1)
Historical Development	323	(1)
Opinion and Judgment of the International Military Tribunal	323	(1)
Declaration of Paris, Apr. 16, 1856	323	(2)
1868 Declaration of St. Petersburg Renouncing the Use, in Time of War, of Certain Explosive Projectile	325	(1)
``Martens'' Clause, Preamble to the 1899 Hague II Convention	325	(5)
Questions for Discussion	330	(1)
Scope of Application	330	(5)
1949 Geneva Conventions	330	(1)
The General Participation Clause	331	(1)
Opinion and Judgment of the International Military Tribunal	331	(1)
1949 Geneva Conventions	331	(1)
Types of Hostilities	332	(1)
1949 Geneva Conventions	332	(1)
Civil Wars	333	(1)
The Prize Cases	333	(1)
L. Oppenheim, International Law	333	(1)
1977 Protocol I	334	(1)
Questions for Discussion	335	(1)
Methods and Means of Conducting Hostilities	335	(16)
General	335	(1)
1907 Hague IV Regulations	335	(1)
Naval Warfare	336	(1)
1907 Hague VIII Convention	336	(1)
1907 Hague IX Convention	336	(1)
Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armaments	337	(1)
Opinion and Judgment of the International Military Tribunal	338	(1)
Hector Gros Espiell, Foreword	338	(1)
Air Warfare	338	(1)
Protection of Civilian Populations Against Bombing from the Air in Case of War, Resolution of the League of Nations Assembly	339	(1)
Chemical and Biological Warfare	339	(1)
Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare	339	(1)
Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction	340	(1)
Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction	341	(1)
The 1977 Protocol I	341	(1)
1977 Protocol I	341	(3)
1980 Conventional Weapons Convention: 1980 Protocol I	344	(1)
1980 Conventional Weapons Convention: 1980 Protocol I	344	(1)
1996 Amended Protocol II	344	(2)
1980 Protocol III	346	(1)
1995 Protocol IV	347	(1)
1997 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction	348	(1)
1977 Protocol I	349	(1)
Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques	349	(1)
Note	349	(1)
Advisory Opinion [Extract] of the International Court of Justice on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons	350	(1)
Questions for Discussion	351	(1)
Combatant and Prisoner-of-War Status	351	(7)
Entitlement	351	(1)
Third Convention	352	(1)
1977 Protocol I	353	(1)
Questions for Discussion	354	(1)
Benefits and Protections	354	(1)
Third Convention	355	(1)
Questions for Discussion	356	(1)
Mercenaries	357	(1)
1977 Protocol I	357	(1)
Reprisals	358	(2)
U.S. Army, Field Manual 27-10	358	(1)
1977 Protocol I	358	(1)
Some World War II Examples	359	(1)
Protected Persons	360	(2)
Fourth Convention	360	(1)
1977 Protocol I	361	(1)
The Law of Belligerent Occupation	362	(2)
Doris Apple Graber, The Development of the Law of Belligerent Occupation, 1863--1914	362	(1)
Opinion and Judgment of the International Military Tribunal	363	(1)
Fourth Convention	363	(1)
Protecting Powers and Enforcement	364	(4)
1949 Geneva Conventions	365	(1)
1977 Protocol I	366	(1)
Third Convention	367	(1)
Questions for Discussion	367	(1)
The Law of Neutrality	368	(2)
1907 Hague V Convention	368	(1)
1907 Hague XIII Convention	369	(1)
Some Applications of the Law of Neutrality	369	(1)
Selected Bibliography	370	(3)
Operational Law	373	(32)
David Graham
The Evolution of Operational Law	374	(4)
Change in the Nature of Warfare	374	(1)
My Lai and the DOD Law of War Program	375	(1)
Operation Urgent Fury (Grenada): Validating the Need for OPLAW	376	(1)
Post Grenada: Institutionalizing OPLAW Within the U.S. Armed Forces	377	(1)
The Legal Framework of Operational Law	378	(5)
Legal Support to Operations and Functional Areas	378	(1)
OPLAW: Legal Issues Affecting the Command and Control---and Sustainment---of Military Operations	379	(1)
OPLAW Command and Control Functions	379	(1)
The OPLAW Sustainment Functions of the Core Legal Disciplines	380	(1)
International Law	380	(1)
Administrative Law	381	(1)
Civil Law	381	(1)
Claims	382	(1)
OPLAW: Selected Case Studies	383	(9)
Panama---Operation Just Cause, 1989--1990	383	(1)
Operational Law Issues	384	(1)
Rules of Engagement	384	(1)
International OPLAW Law Issues	385	(1)
Law of War	385	(1)
Claims OPLAW Issues	386	(1)
Questions for Discussion	387	(1)
Operation Desert Storm, 1991	387	(1)
Operational Law Issues	388	(1)
ROE and the Law of War	388	(1)
International OPLAW Issues	389	(1)
Occupation Law	389	(1)
War Crimes	390	(1)
Civil OPLAW Issues	391	(1)
Acquisition and Contract Law	391	(1)
Administrative OPLAW Issues	392	(1)
Summing Up	392	(1)
Questions for Discussion	392	(1)
Kosovo---1999; Operation Allied Force and Task Force Hawk---1999	392	(7)
Operation Allied Force	392	(1)
Operational Law Issues	393	(1)
Targeting	393	(1)
International OPLAW Issues	393	(1)
The Law of War	393	(1)
Task Force Hawk	394	(1)
Operational Law Issues	394	(1)
Targeting	394	(1)
Rules of Engagement	394	(1)
Claims OPLAW Issues	395	(1)
Foreign Claims	395	(1)
Civil OPLAW Issues	395	(1)
Fiscal Law	395	(1)
Operation Joint Guardian---1999	396	(1)
Operational Law Issues	397	(1)
Rules of Engagement	397	(1)
International OPLAW Issues	398	(1)
International Legal Framework for the Military Mission	398	(1)
Contractor Operations and Status	398	(1)
Civil OPLAW Issues	398	(1)
Fiscal Law	398	(1)
Questions for Discussion	399	(1)
OPLAW Training and Support Provided to Judge Advocates	399	(3)
OPLAW Training	399	(1)
Army	399	(1)
Air Force	400	(1)
Navy	401	(1)
Marine Corps	401	(1)
OPLAW Support	402	(1)
Conclusion	402	(1)
Selected Bibliography	403	(2)
War Crimes and Tribunals	405	(52)
Michael P. Scharf
The Nuremberg Tribunal	405	(10)
Establishment of the Nuremberg Tribunal	405	(1)
Virginia Morris & Michael P. Scharf, 1 The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda	405	(2)
The Rationale for Creating the Nuremberg Tribunal	407	(1)
Michael P. Scharf & William A. Schabas, Slobodan Milosevic on Trial: A Companion	407	(1)
The Legacy of the Nuremberg Tribunal	408	(1)
Virginia Morris & Michael P. Scharf, The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda	408	(3)
Principles of the Nuremberg Charter and Judgment Formulated by the International Law Commission and Adopted by G.A. Res. 177(II)(a)	411	(1)
Did the Nuremberg Tribunal Exercise Universal Jurisdiction?	412	(1)
Egon Schwelb, Crimes Against Humanity	413	(1)
Judgment of the International Military Tribunal for the Trial of German Major War Criminals	413	(1)
The Charter and Judgment of the Nuremberg Tribunal: History and Analysis	414	(1)
Interim Report of the Independent Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992)	415	(1)
Questions for Discussion	415	(1)
The Yugoslavia War Crimes Tribunal	415	(25)
The Creation of the Yugoslavia Tribunal	415	(1)
Virginia Morris & Michael P. Scharf, 1 The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda	415	(2)
The Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic	417	(13)
The Jurisprudence of Command Responsibility	430	(1)
The Prosecutor v. Delalic et al.	430	(9)
Questions for Discussion	439	(1)
The Debate over the Permanent International Criminal Court	440	(15)
Michael P. Scharf, The Case for Supporting the International Criminal Court	440	(10)
Lee A. Casey, The Case Against Supporting the International Criminal Court	450	(4)
Questions for Discussion	454	(1)
Selected Bibliography	455	(2)
The Control of International Terrorism	457	(36)
John F. Murphy
Introduction	457	(1)
Theoretical and Historical Overview	458	(4)
International Terrorism: A Definitional Quagmire	458	(3)
A Brief History of Efforts to Combat International Terrorism	461	(1)
Modern Approaches	462	(28)
The Quest for a Comprehensive Approach	462	(1)
Fourth Interim Report of the Committee on International Terrorism	463	(1)
The ``Piecemeal'' Approach Illustrated	464	(1)
Global Treaties and Conventions	465	(3)
Regional Conventions	468	(2)
Bilateral Agreements	470	(3)
Informal Methods of Rendition: Exclusion, Expulsion, and Kidnapping	473	(2)
International Judicial Assistance	475	(1)
A Proposed Convention	476	(1)
Questions for Discussion	477	(2)
Other Approaches	479	(1)
Analogies to the Law of Armed Conflict	479	(2)
Fora for Trying Terrorists	481	(1)
Limitations on Immigration and Granting of Refugee Status	481	(1)
Efforts to Block the Financing of International Terrorism	482	(2)
Civil Suits Against Terrorists, Terrorist Organizations, and States that Sponsor Terrorism	484	(2)
Questions for Discussion	486	(1)
Coercive Measures Against States Supporting International Terrorism	487	(3)
Selected Bibliography	490	(3)
Drugs as a National Security Issue	493	(14)
David Shull
Introduction	493	(1)
1970s	494	(2)
1980s	496	(2)
National Security Link Formalized	498	(1)
Department of Defense Authorizations	499	(4)
Involvement by Federal Law Enforcement Agencies	503	(1)
Overall Executive Branch Coordination	504	(3)
American National Security Strategy: An Overview	507	(16)
Alberto R. Coll
The First Century	507	(2)
America's Rise as a World Power	509	(2)
Four Decades of Cold War and Containment	511	(5)
The End of the Cold War and Containment	516	(1)
The Uncertainties of the 1990s	517	(2)
National Security Strategy after September 11	519	(4)
International Arms Restraint by Treaty, Law, and Policy	523	(138)
Ronald F. Lehman II
The Concept and Components of International Arms Restraint	523	(13)
Arms Control	524	(1)
Disarmament	524	(1)
Nonproliferation	525	(1)
Rules of Warfare	526	(1)
Monitoring, Verification, and Compliance	526	(1)
Confidence-Building Measures (CBMs)	527	(1)
Unilateral and Declaratory Measures	528	(1)
Security Assurances	528	(1)
Export Controls/Suppliers Regimes	529	(1)
Cooperative Threat Reduction	529	(1)
Constructive Engagement	530	(1)
Compulsory Inspections and Enforcement	530	(1)
Adjuncts to Peacekeeping, Conflict Resolution, and Humanitarian Intervention	531	(1)
Vehicle for Political Reform and Regime Change	531	(1)
Dynamics of International Arms Restraints	532	(1)
Origins of Arms Restraint---The Early History	533	(3)
Global Regimes and the Quest for Universality	536	(18)
The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968 (NPT)	536	(5)
The Biological Weapons Convention of 1972 (BWC)	541	(4)
The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)	545	(3)
Conventional Arms	548	(1)
General and Complete Disarmament (GCD)	548	(1)
The Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects and Protocols of 1980 (CCW)	549	(1)
Ottawa Landmine Convention	550	(1)
United Nations Register of Conventional Arms	551	(2)
Environmental Modification Convention	553	(1)
Confrontation and the Cold War Legacy	554	(39)
From the Baruch Plan to the Nuclear Test Moratorium	554	(1)
Nuclear Testing Limitations	555	(1)
Limited Test Ban Treaty	556	(1)
Threshold Test Ban Treaty and the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty	556	(1)
The TTBT/PNET Verification Protocol and the Joint Verification Experiment	557	(1)
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)	558	(3)
Strategic Offensive Nuclear Force Limitations and Reductions	561	(1)
Salt I	562	(5)
Salt II	567	(2)
The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force Treaty (INF)	569	(1)
Start I	570	(5)
Parallel and Unilateral Declarations	575	(3)
Lisbon Protocol	578	(1)
Start II	579	(2)
The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM Treaty)	581	(5)
Space Arms Control	586	(1)
No First Use	587	(2)
Nuclear Free Zones	589	(4)
Geopolitics, Conventional Forces and Regional Arms Restraint	593	(6)
Mutual and Balanced Force Reduction (MBFR)	594	(2)
The Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE)	596	(3)
Cooperation and Confidence-Building	599	(20)
Theories of Confidence-Building Measures	600	(1)
The Principle of Restraint	600	(1)
Certainty and Uncertainty	601	(1)
Buying Time to Prevent Surprise	601	(1)
``Rules of the Road'' and Crisis Management	601	(1)
Declaratory Restraints: Unilateral and Reciprocal	602	(1)
Assurances and Reassurances	602	(1)
The Geopolitics of Confidence	603	(1)
The Cold War Experience with Confidence Building	603	(1)
Basic Principles of Relations	603	(1)
The Hotline	604	(1)
Measures to Reduce the Risks of War	605	(1)
Incidents at Sea Agreement	605	(1)
Cooperative measures: Salt/Start/Treaty of Moscow	606	(1)
Exercise Notifications	607	(1)
Information Sharing and Crisis Control Systems	608	(3)
Earliest Warning	611	(1)
Demilitarized Areas and Stand-Off Zones	612	(1)
Cold War Europe: NATO and the Warsaw Pact	613	(1)
Berlin and the Quadripartite Agreement	613	(1)
Associated Measures in the MBFR Negotiations	614	(1)
CSCE: Helsinki and Madrid	615	(1)
CSCE Continued: Stockholm and Vienna	616	(2)
Multilateral Concepts and Prospects	618	(1)
Globalization and Fragmentation: Restraint's New Look	619	(32)
Nuclear Reductions a Decade after the Cold War	621	(1)
The NPT Review Conferences	621	(3)
Helsinki/Start III	624	(1)
The Moscow Treaty/Sort	625	(4)
De-Alerting	629	(2)
The New Debate over Missile Defenses	631	(2)
NWFZs and their Role after the Cold War	633	(1)
The Antarctic Treaty	634	(1)
The Outer Space Treaty	635	(1)
Latin America	635	(2)
The Seabed Treaty	637	(1)
South Pacific	637	(1)
Southeast Asia	638	(1)
Africa	639	(1)
Mongolia	639	(1)
Central Asia	640	(1)
The Korean Peninsula	640	(1)
Other Regions and the Future	641	(1)
International Law and Nuclear Weapons	642	(1)
Combatants and Non-Combatants	643	(2)
Proportionality and Restraint	645	(1)
Deterrence, Retaliation, and Reprisals	646	(2)
The 1996 ICJ Advisory Opinion	648	(1)
Domestic Law and Nuclear Weapons	649	(2)
Contemporary Dynamics of International Arms Restraint	651	(8)
Questions for Discussion	656	(3)
Selected Bibliography	659	(2)
International Human Rights	661	(58)
Richard Schifter
The Human Rights Concept	661	(1)
The Pre-Charter Era	662	(3)
Paul Sieghart, The International Law of Human Rights	662	(1)
Note	663	(1)
Tom Farer, Human Rights Before the Second World War	663	(1)
Shigeru Oda, The Individual in International Law	664	(1)
A.H. Robertson, Human Rights in the World	665	(1)
Human Rights Under the United Nations Charter	665	(4)
Eighteenth Report of the Commission to Study the Organization of Peace, The United Nations and Human Rights	665	(2)
Questions for Discussion	667	(1)
Note	668	(1)
Richard Schifter, Human Rights at the United Nations: The South Africa Precedent	668	(1)
Human Rights Under the International Bill of Rights	669	(11)
Universal Declaration of Human Rights	670	(1)
Statement of Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt	671	(1)
United Nations Action in the Field of Human Rights	671	(1)
John Humphrey, The International Bill of Rights: Scope and Implementation	671	(1)
Comments and Questions for Discussion	672	(1)
International Covenants on Human Rights	672	(1)
A.H. Robertson, Human Rights in the World	672	(1)
Implementing the International Bill of Rights	673	(1)
Note	673	(2)
The Case of South Africa	675	(1)
Richard Schifter, Human Rights at the United Nations: The South Africa Precedent	675	(3)
The Case of Southern Rhodesia/Zimbabwe	678	(1)
The Case of South West Africa/Namibia	678	(1)
Note	679	(1)
Richard Schifter, Human Rights at the United Nations: The South Africa Precedent	679	(1)
United States Ratification of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights	680	(8)
Note	680	(1)
Statement of Professor John Norton Moore	681	(1)
David P. Stewart, United States Ratification of the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: The Significance of the Reservations, Understandings, and Declarations	682	(6)
The U.S. Congress Weighs In	688	(18)
Note	688	(1)
The Trade Act of 1974 (Jackson-Vanik Amendment)	689	(1)
Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended	689	(1)
Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, as amended	690	(1)
International Financial Institutions Act of 1977	691	(1)
Richard Schifter, America's Commitment to Human Rights	691	(4)
Note	695	(2)
Max M. Kampelman, Three Years at the East-West Divide	697	(2)
Violation of Human Rights and Fundamental Proceedings of the U.N. Human Rights Comm.	699	(6)
Note	705	(1)
A Clash of Civilizations?	706	(11)
Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations?	706	(2)
Note	708	(1)
Heiner Bielefeldt, Muslim Voices in the Human Rights Debate	709	(6)
Richard Schifter, The Cause of Freedom	715	(2)
Selected Bibliography	717	(2)
The Law of the Sea	719	(26)
Horace B. Robertson, Jr.
Introduction---Freedom of the Seas	719	(1)
Jurisdictional Claims in the Oceans	719	(5)
Baselines	720	(1)
Internal Waters	720	(1)
Territorial Sea	721	(1)
Contiguous Zone	721	(1)
Continental Shelf	721	(1)
Coastal Resource Zones	722	(1)
Archipelagic Waters	722	(1)
High Seas	723	(1)
Air Defense Identification Zones and Other Defense Zones	723	(1)
Question for Discussion	723	(1)
Navigation and Transit Rights	724	(5)
Innocent Passage Through the Territorial Sea	724	(1)
Max Sorensen, Law of the Sea	724	(1)
Questions for Discussion	725	(1)
Passage Through International Straits and Archipelagic Sea Lanes	726	(1)
Corfu Channel Case (U.K. v. Alb.) (Merits)	726	(1)
Statement by the Honorable John R. Stevenson, United States Representative to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of the Seabed and the Ocean Floor beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction	726	(1)
Questions for Discussion	727	(1)
Exclusive Economic Zone	727	(1)
Statement of Brazil upon Ratification of the Third United Convention on the Law of the Sea	727	(1)
Questions for Discussion	728	(1)
The United States Freedom of Navigation Program	728	(1)
Questions for Discussion	729	(1)
High Seas Freedoms	729	(1)
Question for Discussion	729	(1)
Blockade, Quarantine, and Defensive Declarations	729	(7)
Classical Doctrine of Blockade and its Applications in World Wars I and II	729	(1)
Post-World War II Applications	730	(1)
Korean War, 1950--1953	730	(1)
Telegram from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to the Commander in Chief, Far East (MacArthur)	730	(1)
Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962	731	(1)
Interdiction of the Delivery of Offensive Weapons to Cuba	731	(1)
Vietnam War, 1964--1973	732	(1)
U.N. Notified of New Measures Against North Viet-Nam	732	(1)
Presidential Assistant Kissinger Discusses Considerations Leading to President's New Decisions on Viet-Nam	733	(1)
Falkland Islands War, 1982	733	(1)
Declaration of a Maritime Exclusion Zone	733	(1)
Declaration of a Total Exclusion Zone	733	(1)
The Gulf War, 1990--1991	734	(1)
Special Warning No. 80 issued by the U.S. Department of the Navy, 17 August 1990	734	(1)
UN Security Council Resolution 665	734	(1)
Questions for Discussion	734	(2)
Intelligence Collection	736	(3)
United States and Soviet Electronic Intelligence Activities (ELINT)	736	(1)
Capture of USS Pueblo by North Korea	737	(1)
The Navy EP-3 Incident in the South China Sea (2001)	738	(1)
Questions for Discussion	738	(1)
Weapons Exercises and Testing	739	(1)
Myres S. McDougal & William T. Burke, The Public Order of the Oceans	739	(1)
Questions for Discussion	740	(1)
Protection of Ocean Rights	740	(2)
The Concept of Flag-State Jurisdiction	740	(1)
Hot Pursuit	741	(1)
Questions for Discussion	741	(1)
Piracy	742	(1)
International Law Regarding the Suppression of Piracy	742	(1)
Questions for Discussion	742	(1)
Selected Bibliography	743	(2)
Outer Space Law	745	(34)
Robert A. Ramey
Introduction	745	(5)
Definition and Features of Space Law	745	(2)
The Human Ascent to Space	747	(1)
Douglas Aircraft Co., Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship	747	(2)
Pre-Treaty Development of International Space Regulation	749	(1)
Importance of Governmental Organization for Space National Security	750	(1)
Question for Discussion	750	(1)
United Nations Space Treaties and Their Impact on U.S. Space Activities	750	(15)
Outer Space Treaty	750	(1)
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies	751	(1)
Where Is Outer Space?	752	(1)
The Application of International Law to State Activity in Space	753	(1)
``Peaceful Purposes''	753	(3)
State Responsibility for All National Space Activities	756	(1)
Questions for Discussion	756	(2)
Rescue and Return Agreement	758	(1)
Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space	758	(1)
Questions for Discussion	759	(1)
Liability Convention	760	(1)
Convention on the International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects	760	(2)
Questions for Discussion	762	(1)
Registration Convention	763	(1)
Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space	763	(2)
Questions for Discussion	765	(1)
Other Relevant International Law	765	(4)
Customary International Law for Space?	765	(2)
Other Sources of Treaty Law	767	(2)
Additional Issues Bearing Present or Future Implications for U.S. National Security	769	(9)
The Militarization and Weaponization of Space	769	(2)
Uses of Force in Space	771	(2)
Questions for Discussion	773	(1)
Innocent Passage for Space Objects?	774	(1)
Remote Sensing and Shutter Control	775	(2)
Questions for Discussion	777	(1)
Selected Bibliography	778	(1)
The Constitutional Framework for the Division of National Security Powers Among Congress, the President, and the Courts	779	(64)
Robert F. Turner
Harold Hongju Koh, The National Security Constitution	779	(1)
John Hart Ely, War and Responsibility: Constitutional Lessons of Vietnam and its Aftermath	780	(1)
Peter M. Shane & Harold H. Bruff, Separation of Powers Law: Cases and Materials	780	(1)
Harold Hongju Koh, The National Security Constitution	781	(1)
Peter M. Shane & Harold H. Bruff, Separation of Powers Law: Cases and Materials	782	(1)
Gerhard Casper, Separating Power: Essays on the Founding Period	782	(1)
The Theory of Separation of National Security Powers	783	(31)
Historical Overview	783	(1)
The Influence of Locke, Montesquieu, and Blackstone	783	(1)
John Locke, Two Treatises of Government	783	(2)
Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws	785	(2)
William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England	787	(1)
Charles Thach, Creation of the Presidency	788	(1)
James Madison, Remarks to the Constitutional Convention (July 17, 1787)	788	(1)
The Federalist Papers	788	(1)
The Federalist No. 47	789	(1)
The Federalist No. 70	790	(1)
The Federalist No. 72	791	(1)
Questions for Discussion	791	(1)
The President's Special Responsibilities in Foreign Affairs	792	(1)
4 Green Hackworth, Digest of International Law	792	(1)
Act Creating Department of Foreign Affairs	793	(1)
Madison's Speech on the Removal Power	793	(1)
James Madison, Remarks During Debate on Establishing Department of Foreign Affairs	793	(1)
Jefferson's Advice to Washington on the Senate Role in Foreign Affairs	794	(1)
Thomas Jefferson, Opinion on the Powers of the Senate Respecting Diplomatic Appointments	794	(1)
George Washington, 6 Papers of George Washington 68 (1979)	795	(1)
The Pacificus-Helvidius Exchange of 1793	795	(1)
Alexander Hamilton, Pacificus No. I	796	(2)
James Madison, Letters of Helvidius, No. I.	798	(2)
Representative John Marshall (Fed. Va.)	800	(1)
Note	801	(1)
A Tradition of Legislative Deference	802	(1)
Memorandum Upon the Power to Recognize the Independence of a New Foreign State	803	(1)
Statement of Sen. John C. Spooner	803	(2)
Senator J. William Fulbright, American Foreign Policy in the 20th Century Under an 18th-Century Constitution	805	(1)
Using the Power of the Purse to Constrain Executive Discretion	806	(1)
Richard F. Grimmett, Foreign Policy Roles of the President and Congress	806	(2)
Robert F. Turner, The Power of the Purse	808	(5)
Questions for Discussion	813	(1)
The Role of the Courts	814	(25)
Separation of Powers and the Supreme Court	814	(1)
Marbury v. Madison	814	(1)
Kendall v. United States	815	(1)
Kilbourn v. Thompson	815	(1)
Evans v. Gore	816	(1)
Myers v. United States	816	(2)
United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.	818	(1)
Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (Steel Seizure Case)	819	(2)
Notes	821	(1)
Justiciability	822	(1)
Case or Controversy Problems	822	(1)
Goldwater v. Carter	823	(1)
The Political Question Doctrine	823	(1)
Johnson v. Eisentrager	824	(1)
Baker v. Carr	824	(2)
Gilligan v. Morgan	826	(3)
Goldwater v. Carter	829	(4)
Christopher v. Harbury	833	(1)
Note	834	(1)
Morrison v. Olson	834	(1)
Standing	834	(1)
United States v. Richardson	835	(2)
Schlesinger v. Reservists to Stop the War	837	(2)
Selected Bibliography	839	(4)
The Authority of Congress and the President to Use the Armed Forces	843	(42)
Robert F. Turner
Stephen Dycus et al., National Security Law	843	(1)
The Decision to Commence War	844	(7)
Historical Background	844	(1)
The Writings of James Madison	845	(1)
The Eighteenth Century Meaning of ``Declare War''	845	(1)
Robert F. Turner, War and the Forgotten Executive Power Clause of the Constitution	846	(1)
Declarations of War in U.S. History	847	(1)
Note: The Jus Ad Bellum Meaning of ``Offensive'' War	848	(1)
Thomas Jefferson and the Barbary Pirates	849	(1)
Robert F. Turner, War and the Forgotten Executive Power Clause of the Constitution	849	(2)
The Prize Cases	851	(1)
Force Short of War: Defensive Uses of Military Force by the President	851	(32)
Protecting American Citizens Abroad	851	(1)
Edward Corwin, The President: Office and Powers, 1787--1957	851	(1)
Quincy Wright, The Control of American Foreign Relations	852	(2)
Preparing for and Conducting Military Operations	854	(1)
The Federalist No. 69	854	(1)
The Federalist No. 72	854	(1)
The Federalist No. 74	855	(1)
The War Powers After 200 Years: Congress and the President at a Constitutional Impasse	855	(1)
Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States	856	(1)
William Howard Taft, The Boundaries Between the Executive, the Legislative and the Judicial Branches of the Government	857	(1)
Ex parte Milligan	858	(1)
Swaim v. United States	858	(1)
Congress, Declarations of War, and the United Nations Charter	859	(1)
Robert F. Turner, Truman, Korea, and the Constitution: Debunking the ``Imperial President'' Myth	860	(4)
Questions for Discussion	864	(1)
Comments	864	(1)
Modern Precedents: Korea, Vietnam, and Iraq	865	(1)
Robert F. Turner, Truman, Korea, and the Constitution: Debunking the ``Imperial President'' Myth	865	(5)
The Indochina War	870	(1)
The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution	871	(1)
John Hart Ely, War and Responsibility	872	(1)
The 1991 and 2003 Conflicts With Iraq	873	(2)
The 1973 War Powers Resolution	875	(1)
The War Powers Resolution	875	(1)
Questions for Discussion	876	(1)
The War Powers After 200 Years: Congress and the President at a Constitutional Impasse	877	(5)
Disenchantment with the War Powers Resolution	882	(1)
Selected Bibliography	883	(2)
Treaties and Other International Agreements	885	(26)
Robert Dalton
Introduction	885	(1)
The Constitutional Framework	885	(1)
Treaty or International Agreement: Definitions and Distinctions	886	(3)
Legal Basis for Treaties and Other International Agreements	889	(1)
Authorization, Approval and Reporting Procedures: Department Circular No. 175 and the Case-Zablocki Act	889	(1)
National Security Agreements: A Microcosm	890	(2)
Choice Between Treaty or Other International Agreement	892	(1)
The Senate and Treaties	893	(1)
Conditioning Senate Advice and Consent to Treaties	894	(5)
Treaty Termination Under U.S. Law	899	(1)
Preemption	900	(2)
International Law of Treaties: Introduction	902	(1)
Reservations	903	(2)
Provisional Application	905	(1)
Interpretation	905	(1)
Amendment and Modification	906	(1)
Invalidity: Provisions of Internal Law Regarding Competence to Conclude Treaties	907	(2)
Termination: Breach	909	(1)
Settlement of Disputes	909	(1)
Effect of Hostilities on Treaties Excluded from Vienna Convention	910	(1)
Conclusion	910	(1)
National Security Process: Process, Decision, and the Role of the Lawyer	911	(24)
James E. Baker
Introduction	911	(20)
Defining National Security	912	(1)
Constitutional Framework and Process	913	(1)
Executive	913	(1)
Congress	914	(1)
Judiciary	915	(2)
Other Actors: Vertical Process and Federalism	917	(1)
Media	918	(1)
Presidential Decision-Making	919	(1)
Formal Framework	919	(8)
Intangible/Informal Framework	927	(1)
The Role of the Lawyer	928	(3)
Duties of the National Security Lawyer	931	(4)
Intelligence and Counterintelligence	935	(32)
Daniel B. Silver
Frederick P. Hitz
J. E. Shreve Ariai
Introductory Overview	935	(9)
Purposes and Function of the Intelligence Process	936	(1)
Intelligence Collection	937	(1)
Counterintelligence	938	(1)
Covert Action	939	(1)
The Current Structure and Organization of the Intelligence Community	939	(3)
The Office of Homeland Security	942	(1)
Questions for Discussion	943	(1)
Regulation of Intelligence Activities	944	(4)
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act	945	(2)
Questions for Discussion	947	(1)
Executive Branch Regulations	948	(1)
Oversight of Intelligence Activities	948	(10)
Congressional Oversight	948	(1)
The Select Committees	949	(1)
Disclosure of Information	949	(1)
United States v. American Telephone & Telegraph Co.	950	(3)
Title VI---Oversight of Intelligence Activities, Intelligence Oversight Act of 1991	953	(1)
Whistleblowers and Leaks	953	(1)
Executive Branch Oversight	954	(1)
Attorney General	955	(1)
National Security Council	956	(1)
Presidential Boards	956	(1)
Executive Order No. 12, 863	956	(2)
Questions for Discussion	958	(1)
Intelligence Activities and the Judicial System	958	(2)
Special Authorities and the Maintenance of National Security Discipline	960	(5)
Special Authorities	960	(1)
National Security Act § 102(c)	960	(1)
Question for Discussion	961	(1)
Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949	961	(2)
National Security Discipline	963	(1)
Question for Discussion	964	(1)
Espionage under International Law	965	(1)
Selected Bibliography	965	(2)
Domestic Terrorism	967	(14)
M. E. Bowman
Policy Constraints	974	(2)
Investigatory Excess?	976	(1)
Conclusion	977	(4)
Access to National Security Information	981	(44)
Robert F. Turner
Robert F. Turner, War and the Forgotten Executive Power Clause of the Constitution	982	(4)
Mark J. Rozell, Executive Privilege: The Dilemma of Secrecy and Democratic Accountability	986	(8)
Access by Congress	994	(9)
3 Westel Willoughby, The Constitutional Law of the United States	994	(1)
Edward Corwin, The President: Office and Powers, 1787--1957	995	(1)
United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.	996	(1)
Louis Fisher, Congressional Access to Information: Using Legislative Will and Leverage	997	(4)
Comments	1001	(1)
Questions	1002	(1)
Access by the Courts	1003	(1)
United States v. Nixon	1003	(1)
Access by the Public	1004	(16)
The Freedom of Information Act	1005	(1)
E.P.A. v. Mink	1005	(1)
Ray v. Turner	1006	(2)
Questions	1008	(1)
C.I.A. v. Sims	1009	(1)
Department of the Navy v. Egan	1010	(1)
Karen A. Winchester & James W. Zirkle, Freedom of Information and the CIA Information Act	1011	(2)
The 1984 Central Intelligence Agency Information Act	1013	(1)
Patricia M. Wald, The Freedom of Information Act: A Short Case Study in the Perils and Paybacks of Legislating Democratic Values	1014	(5)
Comments	1019	(1)
Access by Executive Branch Employees and Contractors	1020	(3)
Comment	1022	(1)
Selected Bibliography	1023	(2)
Freedom of Expression	1025	(34)
Robert M. O'Neil
The New York Times v. United States	1025	(4)
N.Y. Times Co. v. United States	1026	(2)
Comments and Questions	1028	(1)
The Doctrine of Prior Restraint	1029	(1)
John Jeffries, Rethinking Prior Restraint	1029	(1)
United States v. Progressive	1030	(3)
United States v. The Progressive, Inc.	1031	(2)
Post Mortem on the Progressive Case	1033	(2)
Cable News Network, Inc., et al. v. Manuel Antonio Noriega and United States	1033	(1)
Cable News Network, Inc., et al. v. Manuel Antonio Noriega and United States	1034	(1)
Restraints on National-Security Related Expression by Government Employees	1035	(2)
Snepp v. United States	1036	(1)
Exposure of Intelligence Personnel	1037	(3)
The Media and the Military: Press Access to Military Operations	1040	(2)
Panama: A Brief Incursion with Better Coverage	1042	(1)
The Persian Gulf War and Beyond	1043	(8)
The Nation Magazine v. United States Department of Defense	1043	(4)
JB Pictures, Inc. v. Department of Defense	1047	(3)
Robert M. O'Neil, The Media and the Military: The Persian Gulf War and Beyond	1050	(1)
The Road Not Taken: Possible Grounds for Future Access Claims	1051	(4)
Guidelines for War Reporting	1055	(1)
The News Media in Afghanistan---First Amendment Issues After September 11	1056	(3)
Flynt v. Rumsfeld	1057	(2)
National Security and the Fourth and Fifth Amendments	1059	(30)
M. E. Bowman
Introduction	1059	(1)
National Security and the Warrant Requirement	1060	(10)
Introduction to Fourth Amendment Issues	1062	(2)
Case Law after Keith	1064	(2)
Physical Searches	1066	(2)
An Evolving Rule	1068	(2)
The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA)	1070	(15)
Using FISA	1074	(1)
Congress Speaks Again---The USA PATRIOT Act	1075	(2)
The Fourth Amendment in Retrospect	1077	(1)
The Fifth Amendment	1078	(1)
The Federal Employee and the Fifth Amendment	1078	(3)
Liberty and Property	1081	(4)
Conclusions	1085	(4)
National Security Violations	1089	(52)
Michael Liebman
Introduction	1089	(1)
Offenses Relating to the Attempted Violent Overthrow of the Government	1089	(23)
Ex Parte Bollman and Ex Parte Swartwout	1090	(3)
Cramer v. United States	1093	(9)
Haupt v. United States	1102	(6)
Questions for Discussion	1108	(1)
United States v. Rahman	1109	(2)
Questions for Discussion	1111	(1)
Offenses Involving Interference with Military Activities	1112	(21)
Sabotage-Related Offenses	1112	(1)
Roedel v. United States	1113	(1)
Questions for Discussion	1114	(1)
United States v. Kabat	1115	(6)
Questions for Discussion	1121	(1)
United States v. Turpin	1121	(6)
Questions for Discussion	1127	(1)
Encouraging Desertion and Military Insubordination, and Interfering with the Draft, Military Recruitment, and Military Enlistment	1127	(1)
Schenck v. United States	1128	(1)
Questions for Discussion	1129	(1)
Wayte v. United States	1129	(4)
Question for Discussion	1133	(1)
Offenses Related to the Protection of Government Secrets	1133	(8)
Gorin v. United States	1134	(1)
Question for Discussion	1135	(1)
United States v. Heine	1136	(3)
Questions for Discussion	1139	(2)
Immigration Law and National Security	1141	(38)
Bo Cooper
U.S. Immigration Law Overview	1142	(5)
The Security-Related Grounds of Inadmissibility and Deportability	1147	(3)
Procedures for Removal Affecting National Security Cases	1150	(11)
The Alien Terrorist Removal Court	1150	(2)
Expedited Removal in Security Cases	1152	(2)
Standard Removal Proceedings and Classified Evidence	1154	(7)
Post 9/11 Restrictions on Access to Unclassified Information in the Immigration Process	1161	(4)
Detention Principles and Practices Affecting National Security Cases	1165	(4)
General Measures to Improve the Security of the Immigration System	1169	(4)
International Protection Treaties and National Security	1173	(2)
A Final Note	1175	(3)
Selected Bibliography	1178	(1)
U.S. Security Assistance and Related Programs	1179	(28)
Todd F. Buchwald
Michael J. Matheson
Development of the U.S. Security Assistance Program	1179	(4)
Elements of the U.S. Security Assistance System	1183	(12)
Military Assistance and Sales	1183	(4)
Questions for Discussion	1187	(1)
Other Military Assistance Authorities	1187	(2)
Economic Assistance	1189	(2)
Questions for Discussion	1191	(1)
Other Direct Assistance Programs	1191	(2)
Commercial Arms Exports	1193	(2)
Questions for Discussion	1195	(1)
Congressional Control over Presidential Actions	1195	(10)
Role of the Congress	1195	(2)
Questions for Discussion	1197	(1)
Substantive Restrictions on Assistance and Sales Programs	1198	(1)
Human Rights Provisions	1198	(1)
Support for Terrorism	1199	(1)
Narcotics	1200	(1)
Nuclear Nonproliferation	1201	(2)
Other Restrictions on Countries	1203	(1)
Restrictions Against Particular Countries	1203	(1)
Sanctions Against Persons or Entities Within Countries	1204	(1)
Menus of Sanctions	1204	(1)
Restrictions on Particular Uses of Assistance	1205	(1)
Questions for Discussion	1205	(1)
Special Presidential Authorities	1205	(2)
Questions for Discussion	1206	(1)
Dual-Use Export Controls: Counterterrorism, Nonproliferation, National Security, and Foreign Policies of the United States	1207	(18)
Larry E. Christensen
Introduction	1207	(1)
The Agencies and Their Regulations	1208	(1)
Jurisdiction---Drawing the Line Between the ITAR (United States Munitions List) and the EAR (Commerce Control List)	1209	(1)
Authority for the Export Administration Regulations	1210	(1)
Purposes of the Export Administration Regulations	1210	(1)
Structure of the Export Administration Regulations---Scope, Prohibitions, License Exceptions, and License Review	1210	(4)
Scope of the EAR	1211	(1)
Ten General Prohibitions	1212	(1)
License Exceptions	1213	(1)
License Review	1213	(1)
Three Types of License Requirements Under the Export Administration Regulations---List Based, End Use Based, and End User Based	1214	(1)
Per se Violations	1214	(1)
Classification of Commodities, Software and Technology	1215	(1)
The Standard of Care for End Use Controls and Other Knowledge-Based Prohibitions	1215	(1)
Reexport Controls	1216	(1)
Deemed Exports and Deemed Reexports	1216	(1)
Server Access	1217	(1)
Encryption	1217	(1)
Counterterrorism and Supply Chain Security in the Post-9-11 Era	1218	(1)
Advanced Electronic Filing of Cargo Information	1218	(1)
Funds to Terrorists	1219	(1)
Transshipment and Responses of Other Nations	1219	(1)
Regulations of the U.S. Treasury Department's Office of Foreign Assets Control	1220	(1)
Blacklisted Parties or Specially Designated Nationals and Freezing of Assets	1221	(1)
Multilateral Export Control Regimes	1221	(1)
Export Controls and the GATT	1222	(1)
Conclusion	1223	(2)
Information Warfare & the Protection of Critical Infrastructure	1225	(24)
Richard W. Aldrich
Introduction	1225	(1)
Background	1226	(4)
Information Warfare Defined	1226	(2)
Backdrop	1228	(2)
Recognizing Information Warfare	1230	(9)
When Does Information Warfare Amount to ``Warfare''?	1230	(1)
Article 51 of the UN Charter	1231	(1)
Other UN Charter Provisions	1232	(2)
Non-Warfare	1234	(1)
Conclusion	1234	(1)
Who Is the Perpetrator?	1234	(1)
Technical Hurdles	1235	(1)
Legal Hurdles	1235	(2)
``The Last Six Inches''	1237	(1)
Who Is the Object of the Attack?	1237	(2)
Responding to Information Warfare	1239	(3)
The Attribution Problem	1239	(1)
Discrimination and Proportionality	1240	(1)
Discrimination	1240	(1)
Proportionality	1241	(1)
Potential Limitations Imposed by Domestic Law	1242	(1)
Preventing Information Warfare	1242	(5)
Russian Proposal	1243	(1)
Other Models	1244	(3)
Conclusion	1247	(1)
Selected Bibliography	1248	(1)
Federal Emergency Preparedness and Response	1249	(18)
Mark D. Wallace
H. Crane Miller
Introduction	1249	(11)
Historical Overview, 1789 to 1950	1249	(1)
1950: The Shift to the Executive Branch	1250	(1)
1950--1978: Expansion of Disaster Assistance	1251	(4)
General Disaster Response and Recovery: The Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act	1255	(2)
Hazard Mitigation	1257	(1)
Defense Production Act	1258	(1)
Continuity of Operations (COOP) Plans	1259	(1)
The Federal Response to 9/11	1260	(7)
FEMA's Federal Response to 9/11	1260	(1)
Public Assistance	1260	(1)
Individual Assistance	1261	(1)
The Strategic Response to 9/11	1262	(1)
Emergency Preparedness and Response and the Department of Homeland Security	1263	(1)
The Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate (EP&R)	1264	(1)
The Border and Transportation Security Directorate (BTS)	1264	(1)
Other Components of the DHS that Contribute to the Emergency Preparedness and Response Mission	1265	(1)
The Future: Effectively Integrating Various Federal Assets into DHS	1266	(1)
Homeland Security	1267	(30)
Suzanne Spaulding
The Changing Nature of the Threat	1267	(1)
Organizing for Homeland Defense	1268	(6)
Commission Reports	1269	(1)
Executive Order Establishing Office of Homeland Security	1270	(1)
Congressional Proposals	1271	(1)
The Department of Homeland Security	1272	(1)
Congress Acts on the President's Proposal	1272	(1)
Questions for Discussion	1273	(1)
Key Legal Issues	1274	(1)
USA Patriot Act	1275	(2)
Enhanced Criminal Investigative Authorities	1275	(1)
Enhanced Intelligence Surveillance Authorities Inside the United States	1276	(1)
Lowering the Barriers between Intelligence and Law Enforcement	1276	(1)
Money Laundering	1277	(1)
Immigration Provisions	1277	(1)
Public Health Authorities	1277	(5)
Quarantine	1280	(1)
Treatment	1281	(1)
Information Management	1282	(1)
Homeland Defense---The Role of the Military Within the United States	1282	(6)
Legal Authority	1284	(1)
Use of Armed Forces	1284	(2)
Use of National Guard	1286	(1)
Questions for Discussion	1287	(1)
Critical Infrastructure Protection---The Role of the Private Sector	1288	(8)
Organizational Efforts	1289	(1)
Legal Framework	1290	(1)
Question for Discussion	1291	(2)
Applying the Law: A Hypothetical Biological Terrorism Attack	1293	(3)
Selected Bibliography	1296	(1)
Environmental Law and National Security	1297	(68)
John C. Cruden
Introduction	1297	(1)
Environmental Policy	1298	(13)
NEPA: The Cornerstone	1298	(1)
Calvert Cliffs' Coordinating, Inc. v. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission	1299	(2)
Comments	1301	(2)
The Environmental Impact Statement: Practice and Controversy	1303	(1)
Case Study I	1304	(1)
Court of Appeals Decision: The Hypothetical EIS	1305	(1)
Catholic Action of Hawaii v. Brown	1305	(1)
The Supreme Court Response	1306	(1)
Weinberger v. Catholic Action of Hawaii	1306	(1)
Discussion	1307	(2)
Reviewing Environmental Impact Statements	1309	(1)
Standard of Review	1309	(1)
Substantive Compliance with NEPA	1309	(1)
Standing	1310	(1)
Remedies	1310	(1)
Pollution Abatement and Wildlife Statutes	1311	(15)
Pollution Abatement Statutory Overview	1312	(1)
Water Pollution	1312	(1)
Air Quality	1312	(1)
Drinking Water	1312	(1)
Hazardous and Solid Waste	1313	(1)
Superfund	1313	(1)
Other Applicable Environmental Laws	1313	(1)
Federal Compliance with State Environmental Laws	1314	(1)
Case Study II: Puerto Rico and Mariel Boatlift	1315	(1)
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico v. Muskie	1316	(2)
Case Study III: Naval Exercises and Vieques Island	1318	(1)
Weinberger v. Romero Barcelo	1318	(2)
Comments	1320	(1)
Wildlife Statutes	1321	(1)
Case Study IV: The Endangered Species Act	1322	(1)
Water Keeper Alliance v. U.S. Department of Defense	1322	(4)
Comments	1326	(1)
Specific National Security Issues	1326	(39)
Legislation and Planning	1327	(1)
Scientists' Institute v. Atomic Energy Commission	1327	(2)
Comments	1329	(1)
Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Weinberger	1329	(2)
Comments	1331	(1)
Military Basing Decisions	1332	(1)
Concerned About Trident v. Rumsfeld	1332	(3)
Comments	1335	(1)
Wisconsin v. Weinberger	1335	(3)
Friends of the Earth v. U.S. Navy	1338	(2)
Comments	1340	(1)
Training and Testing	1340	(1)
Center for Biological Diversity v. Pirie	1341	(1)
Committee for Nuclear Responsibility, Inc. v. Seaborg	1342	(2)
Makua v. Rumsfeld	1344	(2)
Comments	1346	(2)
Chemical Weapon Demilitarization	1348	(1)
Chemical Weapons Working Group v. U.S. Department of the Army	1348	(1)
Comments	1349	(1)
Nuclear Shipments	1350	(1)
Hodges v. Abraham	1350	(2)
Comments	1352	(1)
NEPA Abroad	1353	(1)
Gemeinschaft zum Schutz des Berliner Baumbestandes v. Marienthal	1354	(1)
Greenpeace USA v. Stone	1355	(4)
Mayaguezanos por la Salud y el Ambiente v. United States	1359	(2)
Comments	1361	(4)
Index	1365